Caratacus

*Caratācos",

Greek "Καράτακος";

variants Latin "Caractacus",

Greek "Καρτάκης"

was a historical British chieftain of the

Catuvellauni tribe , who led the British resistance to the Roman conquest.

The legendary Welsh character Caradoc and the legendary British king Arvirargus may be based upon Caratacus. Caratacus is named by Dio Cassius as a son of the Catuvellaunian king Cunobelinus. Based on coin distribution Caratacus appears to have been the protegé of his uncle Epaticcus, who expanded Catuvellaunian power westwards into the territory of the Atrebates. John Creighton, "Coins and power in Late Iron Age Britain", Cambridge University Press, 2000; Philip de Jersey (1996), "Celtic Coinage in Britain", Shire Archaeology] After Epaticcus died ca. 35, the Atrebates, under Verica, regained some of their territory, but it appears Caratacus completed the conquest, as Dio tells us Verica was ousted, fled to Rome and appealed to the emperor Claudius for help. This was the excuse used by Claudius to launch his invasion of Britain in the Summer of 43.

Cunobelinus had died some time before the invasion. Caratacus and his brother Togodumnus led the initial defence of the country against Aulus Plautius's four legions thought to have been around 40,000 men, primarily using guerrilla tactics. They lost much of the south-east after being defeated in two crucial battles on the rivers Medway see also Battle of the Medway and Thames. Togodumnus was killed and the Catuvellauni's territories were conquered. Claudius was present in August when his legions marched into Camulodunum, the capital of the Catuvellauni [A History of Britain, Richard Dargie (2007), , but Caratacus survived and carried on the resistance further west.

Resistance to Rome

Finally, in 51, Scapula managed to defeat Caratacus in a set-piece battle somewhere in Ordovician territory , see the Battle of Caer Caradoc), capturing Caratacus' wife and daughter and receiving the surrender of his brothers. Caratacus himself escaped, and fled north to the lands of the Brigantes (modern Yorkshire where the Brigantian queen, Cartimandua handed him over to the Romans in chains. (This was one of the factors that led to two Brigantian revolts against Cartimandua and her Roman allies, once later in the 50s and once in 69, led by Venutius, who had once been Cartimandua's husband). With the capture of Caratacus, much of southern Britain from the Humber to the Severn was pacified and garrisoned throughout the 50s [A History of Britain, Richard Dargie (2007), p. 21] .

Legend places Caratacus' last stand at British Camp in the Malvern Hills, but the description of Tacitus makes this unlikely: Although the Severn is visible from British Camp, it is nowhere near it, so this battle must have taken place elsewhere. A number of locations have been suggested, including a site near Brampton Bryan.

Captive in Rome

After his capture, Caratacus was sent to Rome as a war prize, presumably to be killed after a triumphal parade. Although a captive, he was allowed to speak to the Roman senate. Tacitus records a version of his speech in which he says that his stubborn resistance made Rome's glory in defeating him all the greater:

He made such an impression that he was pardoned and allowed to live in peace in Rome. After his liberation, according to Dio Cassius, Caratacus was so impressed by the city of Rome that he said "And can you, then, who have got such possessions and so many of them, covet our poor tents?" Dio Cassius,

Caratacus' name

• Caratacus' name appears as both "Caratacus" and "Caractacus" in manuscripts of Tacitus, and as"Καράτακος"and "Καρτάκης" in manuscripts of Dio. Older reference works tend to favour the spelling "Caractacus", but modern scholars agree, based on historical linguistics and source criticism, that the original Brythonic form was "*Caratācos", pronounced IPA|/ka.ra.taː'kos/, which gives the attested names “Caradog” in Welshand "Carthach" in Irish. [Kenneth H. Jackson, "Queen Boudicca?", "Britannia" 10 p. 255, 1979]

Medieval British traditions

• Caratacus' memory may have been preserved in medieval British tradition. A genealogy in the Welsh Harleian MS 3859 (ca. 1100) includes the generations "Caratauc map Cinbelin map Teuhant", corresponding, via established processes of language change, to "Caratacus, son of Cunobelinus, son of Tasciovanus", preserving the names of the three historical figures in correct relationship. [; The Heirs of Caratacus] -Caratacus and his relatives in medieval Welsh genealogies]
  
• Caratacus does not appear in Geoffrey of Monmouth's "History of the Kings of Britain" (1136), although he appears to correspond to Arviragus, the younger son of Kymbelinus, who continues to resist the Roman invasion after the death of his older brother Guiderius. [Geoffrey of Monmouth, "Historia Regum Britanniae" ] In Welsh versions his name is Gweirydd, son of Cynfelyn, and his brother is called Gwydyr; [Geoffrey of Monmouth, "The History of the Kings of Britain", translated by Lewis Thorpe, 1973; Peter Roberts (trans), "The Chronicle of the Kings of Britain", 1811] the name Arviragus is taken from a poem by Juvenal. [Juvenal, "Satires", [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/juvenal/4.shtml 4.126-127] ]
  
• Caradog, son of Bran, who appears in medieval Welsh literature, has also been identified with Caratacus, although nothing in the medieval legend corresponds except his name. He appears in the Mabinogion as a son of Bran the Blessed, who is left in charge of Britain while his father makes war in Ireland, but is overthrown by Caswallawn (the historical Cassivellaunus, who lived a century earlier than Caratacus). ["The Mabinogion": " [http://www.sacred-texts.com/neu/celt/mab/mab22.htm Branwen, daughter of Llyr] "] The Welsh Triads agree that he was Bran's son, and name two sons, Cawrdaf and Eudaf. [Rachel Bromwich, "Trioedd Ynys Prydein", University of Wales Press, 1963; Triads from the [http://www.ancienttexts.org/library/celtic/ctexts/triads1.html Red Book of Hergest] and [http://www.ancienttexts.org/library/celtic/ctexts/triads2.html Peniarth MS 54] ]
  
• Modern traditions
  
• Caradog only began to be identified with Caratacus after the rediscovery of the works of Tacitus, and new material appeared based on this identification. An 18th century tradition, popularised by the Welsh antiquarian and forger Iolo Morganwg, credits Caradog, on his return from imprisonment in Rome, with the introduction of Christianity to Britain. Iolo also makes the legendary king Coel a son of Caradog's son Cyllen. [Iolo Morganwg, "Triads of Britain" , , , , , , , , , , ]

Road Castle

is an Iron Age bank and ditch in the county of Somerset, England. The hill fort is situated approximately 2 miles (3.2 km) west from the village of Winsford. The ditch is almost square in plan with rounded corners and covers an area of approximately 0.7 acres (0.28 ha).

Hill forts developed in the Late Bronze and Early Iron Age, roughly the start of the first millennium BC. The reason for their emergence in Britain, and their purpose, has been a subject of debate. It has been argued that they could have been military sites constructed in response to invasion from continental Europe, sites built by invaders, or a military reaction to social tensions caused by an increasing population and consequent pressure on agriculture. The dominant view since the 1960s has been that the increasing use of iron led to social changes in Britain. Deposits of iron ore were located in different places to the tin and copper ore necessary to make bronze, and as a result trading patterns shifted and the old elites lost their economic and social status. Power passed into the hands of a new group of people. Archaeologist Barry Cunliffe believes that population increase still played a role and has stated "[the forts] provided defensive possibilities for the community at those times when the stress [of an increasing population] burst out into open warfare. But I wouldn't see them as having been built because there was a state of war. They would be functional as defensive strongholds when there were tensions and undoubtedly some of them were attacked and destroyed, but this was not the only, or even the most significant, factor in their construction".

Winsford

is a village and civil parish in Somerset, England, located about 5 miles (8 km) north-west of Dulverton.

It is within the borders of the Exmoor National Park and around 10 miles (16.1 km) south-west of the coastal town of Minehead. The village has a hotel, The Royal Oak dating to before the start of the 16th century, and a small shop. The village is on the route of the Samaritans Way South West and is located within the Exmoor National Park. To the east of the village is the hamlet of West Howetown.

Winsford Hill is the location of the Wambarrows, a number of Bronze Age burial sites, and Road Castle an Iron Age bank and ditch approximately 2 miles (3.2 km) west from the village. The ditch is almost square in plan with rounded corners and covers an area of approximately 0.7 acres (0.28 ha). The area is home to the Caratacus Stone, a standing stone believed to have been erected by pagan inhabitants of the village, possibly as a religious memorial, bearing the inscription CARAACI NEPUS (kinsman of Caratacus) possibly from the 5th century, and first documented in 1219. The village appears in the Domesday Book of 1085, which lists the presence of 34 smallholders, 41 villagers, 52 sheep and 9 slaves, the whole area being capable of supporting 64 ploughs, despite 40 acres (160,000 m²) of it being woodland. The parish of Winsford was part of the Williton and Freemanners Hundred. Farms in the village include Nethercote, Staddon, Bradley, Halse, Upcott and Knaplock, all of which have retained their original names since tax records from 1327, during the reign of King Edward III.

In the 17th century, Tom Faggus, a highwayman and a gentleman, was said to have held up travellers near the inn in Winsford. On 20 August 1907 the first registered sale and show of the Exmoor Horn Sheep Breeders' Society, which was founded a year earlier, was held in the village, and "1,200 ewes were sold by auction, at an average price per head of 42 shillings". In 1998 the Exmoor Community Computer Centre is a charitable trust took over the redundant building of the Winsford First School and established a community facility for social welfare and recreation. This later became dormant and a grant was obtained for a community facilitator to help restart the centre and re-establishing the venue as a community resource. Computer courses have also been run at Porlock and Sampford Brett. In 2002 the body of an apparent murder victim was found on Winsford Hill. Despite extensive investigations it has yet to be identified.

Governance

The parish council has responsibility for local issues, including setting an annual precept (local rate) to cover the council's operating costs and producing annual accounts for public scrutiny. The parish council evaluates local planning applications and works with the local police, district council officers, and neighbourhood watch groups on matters of crime, security, and traffic. The parish council's role also includes initiating projects for the maintenance and repair of parish facilities, as well as consulting with the district council on the maintenance, repair, and improvement of highways, drainage, footpaths, public transport, and street cleaning. Conservation matters (including trees and listed buildings) and environmental issues are also the responsibility of the council. For  local government purposes, since 1 April 2023, the parish comes under the unitary authority of Somerset Council. Prior to this, it was part of the non-metropolitan district of Somerset West and Taunton (formed on 1 April 2019) and, before this, the district of West Somerset (established under the Local Government Act 1972). It was part of Dulverton Rural District before 1974. It is also part of the Tiverton and Minehead constituency represented in the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. It elects one Member of Parliament (MP) by the first past the post system of election.

Geography

Packhorse bridge over Winn Brook

The name comes from the ford across the Winn Brook, where it meets the River Exe. There are eight bridges, providing crossing points over the many small streams that run through the village; one is a packhorse bridge, which is thought to be several hundred years old. The Vicarage Bridge is 42 inches (1,100 mm) wide and 30 feet (9.1 m) long. Winsford Common is situated in a hollow in the surrounding countryside (which itself is within a valley), somewhat akin in shape to that of a punch bowl, and thus has gained the name of The Punchbowl. Given the shape and orientation of this deep hollow on the north eastern edge of the extensive plateau of Winsford Hill and the nature of some of the deposits within it, it has been suggested that it was the site of what may have been the only glacier on Exmoor and indeed in southwest England during the Pleistocene ice ages. It was a meeting point for the Tiverton hounds and Dulverton harriers. The subsoil of Winsford consists of rock shillet, whereas the topsoil has more of a clay-like and loamy character. Iron ore can be found in the mineral deposits of the village, and the mining of this was formerly important to Winsford's economy. Garratts Wood covers a total area of 1.11 hectares (2.74 acres). It is owned and managed by the Woodland Trust.

The parish church is dedicated to St Mary Magdalene and was partly restored in 1858. The tower, which is 90 feet (27.4 m) high, was constructed in three stages. There are six bells; the four heaviest were made by Thomas Bilbie in Cullompton in 1765. Within the church is a fine painted panel created in 1609 during the reign of King James I. The ironwork on the inner doors of the church is thought to date from the 13th century, originating from the priory of St Nicholas in Barlynch, and the font is from the Norman period. The organ was installed c. 1900, being delivered by horse-drawn wagon from nearby Dulverton . The church register dates back to 1660.^[21]The church has been designated by English Heritage as a Grade I listed building.

Notable people

In 1881, the village was the birthplace of the Labour politician and Lord Privy Seal, Ernest Bevin.

In 1946, leading English psychologist Charles Samuel Myers died at his home in Winsford Glebe.

Former prime minister Boris Johnson lived at a farm in the village as a child.

The Hundred of Carhampton

is one of the 40 historical Hundreds in the ceremonial county of Somerset, England, dating from before the Norman conquest during the Anglo-Saxon era although exact dates are unknown. Each hundred had a 'fyrd', which acted as the local defence force and a court which was responsible for the maintenance of the frankpledge system. They also formed a unit for the collection of taxes. The role of the hundred court was described in the Dooms (laws) of King Edgar. The name of the hundred was normally that of its meeting-place. The hundred of Carhampton was a large hundred, covering approximately 60,350 acres (24,420 ha), that contained the parishes of Minehead, Cutcombe, Carhampton, Luccombe, Withycombe, Wootton, Luxborough, Almsworthy, Oare, Dunster, Porlock, Langham, Selworthy, Wilmersham, Allerford, Bickham, Broadwood, Holne, Staunton, Avill, Knowle, East Myne, West Myne, Exford, Aller, Doverhay, Gilcott, Bagley, Oaktrow, Downscombe , Rodhuish, Treborough and Stone. The importance of the hundred courts declined from the seventeenth century. By the 19th century several different single-purpose subdivisions of counties, such as poor law unions, sanitary districts, and highway districts sprang up, filling the administrative role previously played by parishes and hundreds. Although the Hundreds have never been formally abolished, their functions ended with the establishment of county courts in 1867 and the introduction of districts by the Local Government Act 1894. The Hundred of Williton and Free manners (also written as Free manors) is one of the 40 historical Hundreds in the ceremonial county of Somerset , England, dating from before the Norman conquest during the Anglo-Saxon era although exact dates are unknown. Each hundred had a 'fyrd', which acted as the local defence force and a court which was responsible for the maintenance of the frankpledge system. They also formed a unit for the collection of taxes. The role of the hundred court was described in the Dooms (laws) of King Edgar. The name of the hundred was normally that of its meeting-place.

The Hundred of Williton and Freemanners consisted of Watchet the ancient parishes of: Bicknoller, Brompton Ralph, Brompton Regis, Brushford, Chipstable, Clatworthy, Old Cleeve, Crowcombe, St Decuman, Dodington, Dulverton, Elworthy, Exmoor Forest, Exton, Halse, Hawkridge, Huish Champflower, Kilton, Kilve, Lilstock, Monksilver, Nettlecombe, East Quantoxhead, West Quantoxhead, Raddington, Sampford Brett, Skilgate, Stogumber, Nether Stowey, Upton, Winsford, and Withypoole it also has the hands of Doniford a settlement in Watchet. It covered an area of 114,870 acres (46,490 ha).

At the time of the Domesday Book Williton and Dulverton were separate Hundreds. These were brought together with Winsford and Old Cleeve.

The importance of the hundred courts declined from the seventeenth century. By the 19th century several different single-purpose subdivisions of counties, such as poor law unions, sanitary districts, and highway distrcts sprang up, filling the administrative role previously played by parishes and hundreds. Although the Hundreds have never been formally abolished, their functions ended with the establishment of county courts in 1867 and the introduction of districts by the Local Government Act 1894.

.

Giraldus  Cambrensis, in the twelfth century,1 who waxed eloquent over the existing remnants of the old Imperial civilisation at Caerleon where the “ Second Legion ” was quartered. Here were ruins of great palaces, beautiful baths, remnants of temples, theatres, walls, hypocausts and a huge tower rising above the waters of the Usk. The palaces with gilt roofs imitated the Roman pride as built by Roman masters. In addition to noble ruins and works of advanced civilisation, Imperial Rome, the Rome of the Caesars , the mistress of the then known world from the Euphrates and Persia in the east, up to furthest Britain in the west , bequeathed to the Dumnonii and Silures, and, indeed to Britannia generally, the idea of a ruling caste and a “ Stirps Romana.” It was not exactly dynastic nor was it hereditary. The trail of the Imperial purple was too glorious to be forgotten. If Julius Caesar himself had never come as far west as Dumnonia and Wales, Vespasian and Titus the conquerors of Jerusalem (a .d . 70) had brought her cohorts thither, and, as Sir John Rhys surmises, had fought and subdued the Belgae and Dumnonians who occupied nearly the whole south-west of Britain. “ Vespasian’s camp ” is still so called in Somerset. Sir Francis Palgrave has aptly said that the Dominion of the Bretwaldas began by being an imitation of the Imperial sovereignty of Rome. Ethelbert impressed the Roman wolf 'upon his rude Kentish coins. The exaltation of this idea was surely nowhere more conspicuous than in “ Britannia Prima 55 and “ Britannia Secunda.”Therefore when the last Roman legionary left Caerleon Roman Imperial sovereignty might have terminated , but the world-wide prestige of it survived and nowhere more than in Dumnonia.The legacy was imperishable. Imperial Rome bequeathed "also the Latin language the “ lingua franca ” of the world. It must be always remembered that this language came to Britain through two main conduits or channels ;the one preceding St. Augustine, and the other afterwards ;the one flowing directly from Imperial Itinerary of Giraldus Camerensis“ Celtic Britain ”

EXETER.
CHAPTER I.
THE EARLY HISTORY.
A.D. c. 47- 876.
Various types of English towns— Special characteristics of each—Exeter the one great city conquered by Christian English men its analogies in Gaul— Its position by the Exe— Not an ancient bishopric— Isca in Roman times— No records— Date of the English conquest unknown— Mention of Winfrith— Legend of Satilova English and Welsh occupation of the city — The West Saxon advance perhaps by way of Dorset. Each of the leading cities and towns of England has some distinctive character of its own, which parts it off from all others, and which may almost pass for its definition. Most of them indeed admit of a double idefinition, They fall into classes each of which has a marked character, while each again has its own charcacter which parts it off from other members of its own class. Thus one group is formed of those towns of Roman origin which have throughout all English history kept certain position as heads of shires, heads of dioceses, or in some other way places of importance. In this class come the elder and the younger capital Dumnonia Constantine, also, was the name of a King in Scotland, who gave up his Crown and lived as a recluse amongst the Culdees or regular “ clerici ” of St. Andrew (a.d. 943), the name thus serving as a link between Cornwall and Scotland. For centuries, since thedays of Constantius Chlorus, the father of Constantine, the name has been interwoven in British annals. Constantine appears in the Arthurian genealogies—and one of that name is reputed grandfather of Rex Arturus himself. The first Council of Arles a .d . 314) took place under
the auspices and during the reign of Constantine the Great. At this Council Eborius, bishop of York, Restitutus, bishop of London, and Adelfius, bishop of Caerleon, attended. Silvester, bishop of Rome, was not present, but he was treated a " par inter pares ” and is addressed by assembled bishops as “ most beloved brother ” in a letter sent to him.2 This period of Church History is most interesting and the British traditions were passed on to the Saxon Kings in due course of time who claimed a kind of spiritual inheritance with the British Crown. King Edgar, the descendant of Ina and Alfred, said, “ I have the sword of Constantine,” with reference to his task of clearing away some abuses that had crept into the Church.3 Constantine’s traditions were not Papal or Benedictine and take us far back to pure and unsullied pages estern .St. Jerome writing with a direct reference to the remote British Church said “ The Britons who live apart from our world, if they go on a pilgrimage, will leave the western parts and seek Jerusalem, known to them by fame only and by the Scriptures.”

Dr. Challoner, a Roman Catholic historian in his “ Britannia Sancta ” (1745) endorses the report that St. Teilo, a Welshman and great traveller, was consecrated by the Patriarch* of Jerusalem. He calls Dubricius Archbishop of Caerleon, and says that he ordained S. Samson and S. Theliau.
1. Ashmolean Rolls, Bodleian.
2. “ The Ecclesiastical History of Great Britain,” by J. Collier, p. 24.
3. “ Adam of Domerham,” vol. ii, p. 667.
4. Epistle to Marcella.

TWO THOUSAND YEARS IN EXETER

Again, the site of Exeter lay some ten miles up-river from its mouth and this was important when invaders were most likely to come by sea and to attack coastal settlements. At Exeter one was safe from such attacks, or at least there was ample warning of strange ships coming into the estuary. From the volcanic hill we call Rougemont one could look right down to the mouth of the shining estuary and a strange fleet could be spotted hours before it could attack. For all these reasons Exeter made a good trading-place ,and above all, of course, it had something to sell— the products o f a rich and varied countryside. And so the stage was set for the village to grow into a town, and later still into a rich medieval city, on its hilltop in the far West of England.

The Coming of the Romans
The ancient British name for Exeter seems to have been Caerwysc, meaning “the fortified town on the Exe” , but an even older name occurs in the tradition of a siege by the Roman general Vespasian in the year 49. The tradition tells us that there was already a settlement here when Vespasian was sent westwards, and so supplements the evidence of the Hellenistic coins. At the time of this siege Exeter is said to have been called by the rather formidable name of Caer-pen-huel-goit, which means “ die fortified town on the hill near the high or great wood” . Such long descriptive place-names are a characteristic of Wales to this day, and it is quite likely that Exeter had some such ancient names as this in prehistoric times.“ The fortified town on the hill” aptly describes the first site of Exeter, with its earthwork on the end of the ridge or hill.“ The high or great wood” probably refers to die wooded hills to the north of the city, what we now call Stoke Hill and Pennsylvania, which would have been densely wooded in prehistoric times. Stoke Woods today are a remnant of this great wood of two thousand and more years ago.
The tradition of a siege by Vespasian has generally been discredited by modem historians, mainly on the ground that it appears in the writings of a chronicler (Geoffrey of Monmouth) who is known to be very inaccurate, if no worse.

 He tells us that Vespasian was sent down by the Emperor Claudius to subdue South-West Britain, and that he besieged Exeter for eight days without success. A British king then arrived from the east with an army and fought with Vespasian. Despite great losses on both sides neither got die victory. The next Vespasian was the first emperor who hailed from an equestrian family, and only rose into the senatorial rank as the first member of his family later in his lifetime. Vespasian's renown came from his military success; he was legate of Legio II Augusta during the Roman invasion of Britain in 43 and subjugated Judaea during the Jewish rebellion of 66.

The Roman army reached Exeter around AD 50-55 during the conquest of south western Britain Medieval Exe Bridge On a spur overlooking the River Exe a 42 acre legionary fortress was built. This was the base for the 5000 strong Second Augustan Legion. The fortress occupied a commanding position overlooking the River Exe, defended on two sides by steep valleys. The defences and buildings of the fortress were constructed almost entirely from timber and clay. The one exception was the bath house which had walls of volcanic stone quarried from Rougemont Hill .It was an impressive building and was the equivalent to the modern sports hall. Nothing was known of the bath-house until it was excavated by the Exeter Museums Archaeological Field Unit between 1971-76.It lay at a depth of up to 3m below the present surface of the Cathedral Close and was covered by Saxon and medieval cemeteries. Following excavation the bath-house was covered with sand so that it will be possible to re-open the site at some future date and place it on permanent display. The remains are amongst the most impressive of any Roman bath-house in Britain.

In about 75 the legion was transferred to Caerleon in South Wales and the fortress was abandoned. A few years later work began to convert the site into a civilian town, known as Isca Dumnoniorum. The waters of dumnonia not exeter Its public buildings included a forum and basilica (town hall), a market place and public baths.

In about 180-200 the City Wall was built, enclosing 93 acres, a much larger area than that of the fortress and early town. About two thirds of the City Wall remains; it has been patched and repaired over the centuries but some original Roman masonry can still be seen. The sites of the gates were retained in the following centuries but little remains of the Roman grid street pattern. Only the northern part of the High Street follows the Roman lines.

The site of Dunster Castle has been occupied for over a thousand years. It was a place of note in Saxon times serving as a frontier fortress against the Celts and Northmen. The Domesday Book states that it belonged to Aluric in the time of Edward the Confessor when it was known as Torre, a fortified tower. It then became Dunestorre, later shortened to Dunster; the Dun or Dune signifying a ridge of m ountains stretching towards the coast. After the Norman invasion, Dunster and other properties were granted to William de Mohun. Of the Norman castle no trace remains; the oldest surviving feature is the thirteenth century Gateway to the lower ward. In 1376 Lady Joan de Mohun sold Dunster to Lady Elizabeth Luttrell, to whose descendants it belonged until the present century. In 1617 George Luttrell engaged William Arnold to design a new house in the lower ward o f the Castle. During the Commonwealth the fortifications were demolished, though fortunately the Jacobean mansion was spared. It was refurbished in the 1680s by Colonel Erancis Luttrell who installed fine plasterwork ceilings and a magnificent staircase. The eighteenth century additions were swept away by George Fownes Luttrell and his architect, Anthony Salvin, in 1868 -72. Salvin gave the house its castellated appearance by adding two great towers with turrets and battlements. In the centre of the park (south) front he added the lofty tower with a drawing room on the ground floor and three storeys of bedrooms above. He remodelled the entrance (north) facade, rebuilding the porch and enlarging the west wing with a new kitchen in its basement, and a comprehensive range of domestic offices in the low wing extending to the gateway. The appearance of the house before these alterations is recorded in
watercolour drawings by J . Buckler, two of which are illustrated in the guidebook. In 1976 the Castle and park were given to The National Trust by Lt. Colonel Walter Luttrell, M .C . The walk from the stables up to the house is described on pages 29 to 31. The entrance to the house is deemed to face north and the park front, south.

the President of the Royal Geographical Society, remarked in his address at the Anniversary Meeting, 29th May, 1922,that the time had arrived for the emergence of a new type of explorer—viz. the Homeland explorer, who will explore, observe and describe his own homeland . In this direction he noted that Thomas Hardy and Maurice Hewlett had made Wessex and Sussex known In is Encouraged by these examples I have endeavoured, magno intervallo no doubt, to throw some light upon what may be termed“ Ancient Dumnonia. ”This is a point in which all Devonians” and, indeed, dwellers in the three western counties of Somerset, Devon and Cornwall may be especially interested. “ Dumnonia,” like “ Demetia ” and “ Demetica regio," is a very ancient geographical term and the Dumnonii certainly go back to Roman times and were noted for their sea faring qualities.  In King Alfred’s time “ Dumnonia” was used by the King’s Biographer, Bishop Asser, and would certainly mean a good deal more than we now mean by the County of Devon which meets Somerset at Countisbury Gate and Exmoor. But until we are sure of the exact meaning of, say, " Dumnonia ” and “ Demetica regio ” how can we follow King Alfred’s great Danish campaign of 878 ? Historical problems wait for their real solution upon the proper explanation of geographical terms. Many disputes have turned and still turn upon the exact site of Cynuit and Ethandune, two very momentous fights in our island history. There is an Edington Dumnonia Ancient Dumnonia. what time the existing boundaries between West Somerset and North Devon were universally acknowledged is not clear and this uncertainty, dating far back in County annals, has continued even up to modern times. Florence of Worcester (a.d. 1118) in his Chronicle, when recording the Danish Foray up the Severn Sea in a .d . 997,described it as made upon " Watchet in Devonshire.” Watchet or Wacet, the small Saxon port on the north coast of Somerset, lies many miles within the County borders and, in Domesday (1086) was certainly located within the County as a place of ancient importance.Moreover,in the Somerset Exchequer Lay Subsidies Watchet figured as a Somerset “ Burgus ” or Burgh. There was the same popular uncertainty about Exmoor and Exmoor Forest,that well-known Royal preserve, which,according to all records we have of Forest Courts and Forest proceedings from the earliest times, was always reckoned a Somerset Forest. This undoubted fact seems to have been lout sight of, or forgotten, when,in the days of Charles I Kmlymion Porter,a Court favourite asked for Simonsbath ioi a porquisite for himself describing it in his application as lying “ within Devon.”Even Sir Henry Spelman in his < 'dialogue of Royal Forests, c. 1670,places Exmoor in Devon.1 I *SV<; Spelman’s Glossary “ Forestae.”2 Dumnonia In this particular case of Exmoor Forest where the Devon Parishes of Countisbury and Brendon and,it may be added, Lynton, and Parracombe, are so close to the north-west corner of the Forest,and Devon landowners and farmers have for so long exercised Common rights on the Forest and along its “ purlieus,” some confusion may be natural. It was a question about which many appeared to be ill-informed or careless.The antiquary Leland knew the boundaries hereabouts when he wrote in his Itinery (a .d . 1538) :“ The bounds of Somersetshire go beyond the stream (i.e. the Barle) one way by north west a 2 miles or more to a plain called the Spanne and the Tourres ;for there be hillocks of yerth cast up of auncient tyme for markes and Limites between Somersetshire and Devonshire and hereabout is the Limes and Bounds of Exmoor Forest.” This would be in the neighbourhood of what is now called “ The Duck-Pool Allotment ” and “ Moles Chamber,” and “ Shoulsbury Castle,” the latter being in Devonshire.But leaving one antiquary for another what can be said of the learned Sir William Dugdale who, in his Epitome of the “ Monasticon,” locates the alien Priory of Stoke Courcy in Devonshire whereas it lay close to the mouth of the River Parret ?] Or what indeed, to the Reverend Richard Warner of Bath, a west country topographer and pedestrian in his day, who when crossing the Parret at Comwich during one of his “ Walks ” to the West (1800),noticed what he termed the “ hills of Devon ” as seen from Comwich Passage,meaning - surely the Qpantock Hills or, perhaps the “ triple-crowned ” Dunkery, all in Somerset.To this day, indeed, many visitors to the West think or speak of Exmoor as lying in Devonshire.The very expression of “ The Devon and Somerset stag hounds ” fosters the illusion although, as a matter of fact,neither the runs or meets of the pack take place as a rule,within Devon,but almost always within the accepted borders of Somerset. There is, we believe, some grounds for these historical uncertainties about the geography of North Devon and West 1.See Strachey’s List of Religious Houses in Somersetshire—Stoke Courey.Ancient Dumnonia 3Humor,not, both countries appearing to have fallen largely within the bounds of one geographical term that covered both, ill any rate as far as the mouth of the Parret, if not further on i and the term was a general one,viz. “ Dumnonia,” pre- norvod in the ancient “ Dyffneint” We feel sure that, in King Alfred’s time,when the biographer Asser spoke of Dumnonia ” he meant a larger geographical term than what l« meant now by Devonshire.The block of country along the Nurl, 1 1 Somerset Coast, comprising the Hundreds of Canning- luii, VVilliton and Carhampton,all Royal Hundreds at Domesday, may have been a debateable region.Exmoor Forest wan a kind of non-Parochial area, and indeed, it was not until I h l m that Exmoor Parish,as an ecclesiastical unit, was called Into being, after the Royal Forest passed by purchase into private hands, the buyer being Mr. John Knight of Worcester shire.In the twelfth century there was an “ Archdeacon ul Heyond Parret,” so described, meaning the present Arch- deacunry of Taunton. The whole question of the evolution u| a " Shire” is interesting especially as Somerset and Dorset Inn I I liu same Shire Reeve (sheriff) up to 1566. Asser, in King Alliol I i mo describes the county as “ Summurtunensis Paga ” in r e gion round Somerton (Sea-moor Town). He also men- liimi a “ Coorl Dumnoniae Comes” who with the help of Diinmonii fought in 851 against the Pagans at Wicgambeorg, * r Wigborough near South Petherton. At Domesday (1086) wn «l and upon clearer ground although even then the “ Shire ” In iiuI i ii definitely stated as we might expect. (>1 certain well-known border families it might be said in i iih way that they hardly knew whether to call themselves I Invi in or Somerset. Ancient place-names such as Wootton- I 'mirli>imy under Dunkery, recall the family of Courtenay, beil known at Powderham Castle in South Devon: Cut- eiiiiibe Mohun, the original Domesday possession of the Mohuns of I lim iter Castle, reminds us also of the Mohuns of Okehampton in the Dartmoor country : Cutcombe-Raleigh the liwrllagn of the Nettlecombe Raleighs on the Brendons, bor- dmlnu: mi ICxmoor, (a kindred branch, surely, of the Raleighs wlio lived at Challacombe-Raleigh, not far from Barnstaple), ill lent (lie ramification of a family equally rooted in Devon

BLUE ANCHOR — CLEEVE ABBEY
In the churchyard is a tall Cross, standing on a lofty Calvary, the whole restored in 1909 after mutilation in Cromwellian times. Close by is the tombstone o f a blacksmith, whose calling is described in the epitaph (also found in various other parts o f the country). On the hill above, by the wayside, is the base of another cross, called Cliddon's Cross. From the road to Blue Anchor from Cleeve may be seen a little distance away the old sixteenth-century manor-house of Binham, now a farmhouse, and a little farther is the lodge—a pretty thatched cottage—of the mansion of Chapel Cleeve. Here are remains of an ancient chapel connected with the Abbey of
Old Cleeve. Up to the time of Edward IV a chapel stood on the cliff above Blue Anchor, but it was ruined by a landslip, the image of the Virgin alone remaining in its place uninjured. In recognition of this miraculous preservation King Edward granted a charter for a market or fair, the proceeds of which were to be used for the maintenance of the new chapel built farther inland. Some remnants of this later chapel can still be seen in the grounds of Chapel Cleeve.
Blue Anchor
is a small hamlet on the edge of the sea, from which it is protected by a substantial stone wall and promenade. The alabaster rocks along the shore to the east are worth a visit, and many interesting fossils are to be found along the beach. There is good bathing, and excellent facilities for camping are offered. Sites and furnished huts can be hired.
CLEEVE ABBEY

The Abbey is about a mile south-east from Old Cleeve. W alkers may reach it by passing Cliddon’s Cross and taking the old paved monks’ path. From Minehead it can be reached by driving along the Bridgwater road to Washford and then turning to the right, or taking the train to Washford. Free car park. Cleeve Abbey, “the ecclesiastical gem of the district,” was founded in 1198 for Cistercian monks by William de Romara, youngest son of
the Earl of Lincoln, and dedicated to “Our Blessed Lady of the Cliff,” in the ninth year of Richard I, the valley in which it stands being styled in monkish records “Vallis Florida”, or “the flowery valley”. The

Definition of medieval

The adjective medieval literally means “of the Middle Ages,” i.e., the period between antiquity (the Roman world) and the early modern era 

Common chronological range

Historians most often treat the Middle Ages as roughly the 5th century to the 15th century: from the collapse of the Western Roman Empire (commonly dated 476) up to the Renaissance and early modern transitions around 1400–1500 

Standard subperiods and their usual dates

• Early Middle Ages: about 500–1000.
• High Middle Ages: about 1000–1300.
• Late Middle Ages: about 1300–1500.
  These are conventional labels; exact boundaries vary by region and by the historian’s focus 

What authors usually mean when they write “medieval”

• Broad cultural sense: the social, political, religious, and material world shaped by feudal institutions, Christendom, and post‑Roman societies in Europe between Late Antiquity and the Renaissance 
• In specialised works an author may narrow the term (for example, “medieval urban law” might mean 1100–1400), so check the author’s period definition in introductions or captions 

Origin and first use of the word

The English term derives from Latin medium aevum “middle age.” The modern English adjective (often spelled mediaeval earlier) was coined in the 19th century from that Latin phrase; recorded modern forms date from the early 1800s (commonly cited 1825 for the form medieval/mediaeval) 

Quick guidance for reading historical scripts

When you encounter “medieval” in a text, assume 5th–15th centuries unless the author states otherwise; for precise work always look for the author’s explicit chronological scope because usages and boundary years differ by topic and region 

Bronze Age time boundaries overview

The Bronze Age is a cultural-technical phase defined by the pervasive use of bronze (an alloy of copper with tin or arsenic), alongside associated changes in technology, trade, burial practice, and social organisation. Its absolute dates vary widely by region because metallurgy and associated cultural changes spread at different times. Below are commonly used regional ranges and practical guidance for tagging or labelling gazetteer entries.

Common regional date ranges

• Near East and Anatolia
  Early Bronze Age: c. 3300–2100 BCE; Middle Bronze Age: c. 2100–1600 BCE; Late Bronze Age: c. 1600–1200 BCE.
• Aegean (Greece and Cyclades)
  Early Bronze Age: c. 3000–2000 BCE; Middle Bronze Age: c. 2000–1600 BCE; Late Bronze Age: c. 1600–1100 BCE.
• Central and Western Europe
  Broad Bronze Age: c. 2300–800 BCE; subdivided (Early/Middle/Late) roughly as Early c. 2300–1500 BCE, Middle c. 1500–1200 BCE, Late c. 1200–800 BCE.
• British Isles (including Devon and Cornwall)
  Broad Bronze Age: c. 2500–800 BCE; Early Bronze Age often starts c. 2500–2000 BCE (after Late Neolithic/Beaker horizons), Late Bronze Age ends c. 800 BCE.
• South Asia (Indian subcontinent)
  Indus-related Bronze Age/Harappan: c. 3300–1300 BCE (mature Harappan c. 2600–1900 BCE); local Bronze-using traditions continue and overlap with early Iron use.
• East Asia
  Bronze Age in China: roughly c. 2000–771 BCE (Xia-Shang-Zhou sequences; Shang c. 1600–1046 BCE is strongly bronze-rich).
• The Americas and parts of Sub-Saharan Africa
  No true widespread Bronze Age phase comparable to Old World sequences; metallurgy often appears much later and in different forms.

Practical guidance for mapping and gazetteer work

• Use region-specific ranges rather than a single global boundary.
• For ambiguous or single-site reports, prefer relative labels: Early Bronze Age, Middle Bronze Age, Late Bronze Age, or Bronze Age (broad)with a numeric range (e.g., Bronze Age c. 2500–800 BCE).
• Where chronology is uncertain, record both: cultural label(Bronze Age) and confidence/precision(e.g., high if radiocarbon dated; low if typological only).
• Include key local markers in metadata: metallurgy present; Beaker/urnfield/bronze-ritual features; radiocarbon dates range; typology links.
• Allow fields for overlapping phases (e.g., “Late Neolithic / Early Bronze Age transitional”) and for caveats like reuse or later disturbance.

Why ranges differ and how to communicate that

• Start and end dates depend on: first local alloy production; availability of tin or copper sources and trade; cultural adoption of bronze technologies; and the arrival of ironworking.
• Use wording that communicates variability: “Bronze Age (regional: c. 2500–800 BCE)”or “Bronze Age — British Isles convention: c. 2500–800 BCE”.
• When precision matters, attach dating evidence: radiocarbon ranges, stratigraphic context, or diagnostic artefact types.

Short recommended labels for database fields

• Period label: Bronze Age
• Region qualifier: e.g., British Isles
• Numeric range: e.g., c. 2500–800 BCE
• Subdivision: Early / Middle / Late (if known)
• Dating confidence: High / Medium / Low
• Dating evidence: Radiocarbon; typology; stratigraphy; historical reference

The suffix ‘ton’ constitutes a sort of test word,” says Mr. Isaac Taylor, “ by which we are able to discriminate the Anglo-Saxon settlements.”1 “A tun or ‘ton ’ was a place
surrounded by a hedge, or rudely fortified by a palisade”

The passage you quoted is part of the author’s argument that Plympton’s name is unmistakably Anglo‑Saxon, and that the key to recognising this lies in the suffix ‑ton. The PDF you have open confirms this discussion in its treatment of early Plympton history .

🏰 What ‑tonActually Signifies

The core point is that ‑ton(Old English tūn) originally meant:

• An enclosed place— literally a fenced or hedged area

• A defended homestead or settlement— often with a palisade

• A farmstead that could grow into a village or manor

So when you see a place‑name ending in ‑ton, you are almost always looking at:

• A Saxon foundation, or

• A Saxon renamingof an older site they took over.

This is why Isaac Taylor calls it a “test word”: it reliably marks Anglo‑Saxon occupation or administrative control.