Of the link between the place Constantine (Cornwall) and Custennin(Constantine of Cornwall)

There is a direct on-the-ground link: the Cornwall parish and village called Constantine has an early church dedication to a St Constantine, which preserves the local memory of a Constantine figure associated with this district.There is a literary , genealogical link: medieval Welsh and Cornish genealogical and hagiographic material record a Custennin (Custennin Gorneu , Custennin Corneu) as a king of Dumnonia, father of Erbin and grandfather of Geraint, the same name and regional epithet that scholars equate with the Constantine named in Gildas. Chronology and context fit: Custennin’s placement in the Dumnonian genealogies and the associated heroic material points to a sixth‑century floruit, matching the timeframe in which Gildas’ Constantine would have lived and acted in post‑Roman Dumnonia. Evidence categories and what each shows, Place‑name and church dedication , The modern parish of Constantine in Cornwall carries the saint ,, king name and an early church dedication to St Constantine, indicating a continuous local association between the place and a Constantine figure. Such dedications commonly preserve memory of local rulers or saintly founders, so the toponym is a plausible survival of a historical Custennin. Genealogies and Welsh ,, Cornish literature

Medieval genealogical collections and saints’ lists (e.g., Bonedd y Saint and the regional genealogies found in manuscripts like Jesus College MS. 20) list a Custennin Corneu/Custennin Gorneu as ancestor of Erbin and grandfather of Geraint.

The same genealogical tradition places this Custennin in the Dumnonian ,, Cornish sphere, linking name, kinship, and region.

Gildas and historical identification

Gildas (De Excidio) names a Constantine whose moral ,political actions he condemns; later scholars commonly identify that Constantine with the Dumnonian e Cornish Custennin preserved in the genealogies.

Scholarly reconstructions (e.g., proposals of a floruit c. 520–523) derive from reading the genealogies together with the chronological hints in medieval material.

Local tradition and medieval hagiography

Cornish hagiographical and local tradition material preserves stories and cults of a Constantine e Constantine‑figure; such survivals are typical where an historical ruler was later venerated as a local saint or where saint and king identities merged in folk memory.

Onomastic and regional fit

The use of the epithet Corneu e Corneuor (of Cornwall) in medieval genealogies explicitly ties that Custennin to Cornwall, strengthening the identification of the person with the Cornish place‑name.

Limits and counterpoints to the identification

Multiple Constantines: the name Constantine/Custennin is used for several different early medieval figures and saints in Britannia and Brittany, so a shared name does not by itself prove identity.

Genealogies and hagiography are late and sometimes unreliable: medieval genealogies and saints’ lives were compiled centuries after the events and can conflate or invent links.

Gildas’ text is terse and polemical: his brief condemnation offers limited concrete detail for absolute identification, so identification relies on plausible but not definitive convergence of onomastics, genealogy, and place memory.Practical primary and secondary sources to check (recommended)

Gildas, De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae — the original short passage naming Constantine (read in Latin and with a standard translation).

Bonedd y Saint and related Welsh genealogical material (including the Geraint/Erbin lines).

The genealogies in Jesus College MS. 20 (emendations that place Custennin in Dumnonia).

Charles Henderson, Constantine in Cornwall (and the Cornish Church Guide) for local discussion of the place and its dedication.

Modern studies on Dumnonian kings and post‑Roman Cornwall (works by historians of sub‑Roman Britain who discuss identification of Gildas’ figures).

Place‑name surveys and parish inventories (the Victoria County History/Cornwall County records, or local church histories) for the dedication history of Constantine parish. Short conclusion and working judgement

The balance of onomastic, parish‑dedication, genealogical and literary evidence makes it quite plausible that the parish/place‑name Constantine in Cornwall preserves a memory of the Custennin/Custennin Corneu who appears in the Dumnonian genealogies and whom many scholars equate with Gildas’ Constantine.

That conclusion is plausible rather than proven; confirming it requires checking the primary texts named above and the local dedication history (charters, early church lists, archaeological or documentary continuity).

Immediate next steps you can take (I carried the most useful options)

Look up Gildas, De Excidio (English translation and Latin) for the Constantine passage and note phrasing and context.

Inspect Bonedd y Saint and Jesus College MS. 20 genealogies for Custennin’s placement and patronymics.

Check the dedication history for Constantine parish (parish register, medieval charter evidence, and county place‑name volumes) to trace how early the association with St/King Constantine goes.

Compare modern scholarly treatments of Gildas’ Constantine (journal articles or chapters on post‑Roman Dumnonia) to see how recent historians weigh the identification.If you want, I will draft a short primary‑sources checklist with manuscript shelfmarks and suggested modern editions/translations to consult next.Primary sources checklist with manuscripts and modern editions/translations1. Gildas — De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae

Manuscripts to consult: key medieval witnesses (consult critical apparatus in editions for exact shelfmarks).

Recommended modern edition and English translation: Michael Winterbottom, De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae (critical edition) with translation by Winterbottomand the widely used English translation in the same volume.

Quick use: read Gildas’ short passage naming Constantine and compare translations and the Latin text to note nuances and possible emendations.

2. Jesus College MS 20 — Dumnonian and Welsh genealogies (includes lines mentioning Custennin)

Manuscript: Oxford, Jesus College MS. 20(consult digital catalogue or the Bodleian/Jesus College catalogue entry for folio references).

Recommended modern publication: P. C. Bartrum, Early Welsh Genealogical Tracts(prints and translates many medieval genealogies including those drawn from Jesus College MS 20) — use Bartrum for normalized texts and commentary.

Quick use: extract the Custennin / Corneu entries and their immediate kin (Erbin, Geraint) and note variants between witnesses.

3. Bonedd y Saint (Genealogies of the Saints) and related hagiographic material

Manuscripts: several witnesses survive (e.g., Peniarth and other Welsh codices); check Bonedd entries in Jesus Coll. MS. 20 and other genealogical compilations.

Recommended modern edition/summary: look up the Bonedd y Saint text as printed and discussed in standard Welsh scholarly collections; consult the editions and translations collated in Rachel Bromwich’s and P. C. Bartrum’s works for reliable texts and commentary.

Quick use: confirm any saintly identifications or saint‑king conflations for Constantine/Custennin.

4. Welsh prose romance: Geraint and Enid (and related narrative material)

Manuscripts: extant in later Middle Welsh manuscripts (e.g., Peniarth and the White Book of Rhydderch derivatives).Recommended editions/translations: Thomas Jones / Lady Charlotte Guest (older)for reading; for critical Middle Welsh text and English translation consult modern anthologies of the Mabinogion and specialist editions (look for a critical edition that cites manuscript witnesses).

Quick use: extract the pedigree and narrative references tying Geraint to Erbin and Custennin.

5. Medieval and later genealogical miscellanies and kings’ lists (Dumnonian material)

Key manuscripts and compilations: Jesus Coll. MS. 20; various Welsh genealogical tracts preserved in the National Library of Wales (Peniarth, Llanstephan groups).

Recommended reference works: P. C. Bartrum’s genealogical corpusand the catalogue of Welsh manuscripts at the National Library of Wales for shelfmarks and folio citations.

Quick use: map Custennin’s placement across genealogies to check chronological ordering and filial claims.

6. Later medieval and local sources for Constantine (Cornwall) — church dedications, parish histories, charters

Manuscripts/archives: parish registers and early church records for Constantine parish (Cornwall Record Office / Kresen Kernow), diocesan inventories, and any early charters mentioning the church dedication.

Recommended secondary sources to find these references: Charles Henderson, A History of the County of Cornwall(local church and place‑name discussion) and county place‑name surveys (e.g., the English Place‑Name Society volumes or the Victoria County History for Cornwall).

Quick use: establish the antiquity of the church dedication and any documentary evidence tying the saint/king name to the locality.

7. Scholarly discussion and chronology (secondary works you should consult)

Thomas D. O’Sullivan — article arguing a floruit c. 520–523 for Constantine (track down his paper for argument and bibliography).

Standard overviews of post‑Roman Dumnonia and studies on Gildas’ targets (modern journal articles and chapters in works on sub‑Roman Britain).

Recommended reference collections: edited volumes on sub‑Roman Britain, articles in Antiquity, Anglo‑Saxon England, and Proceedings of the Devonshire Association.

How to use this checklist (practical steps)

 Start with Winterbottom’s edition/translation of Gildas to fix the primary wording for Constantine. Read the Jesus Coll. MS. 20 genealogical entries (via Bartrum’s edition) and extract the lines for Custennin, Erbin, and Geraint; note variants and any emendations. Check Bonedd y Saint and Geraint and Enid in modern critical editions for the familial and regional epithets (Corneu, Corneuor, Gorneu). Search Kresen Kernow / Cornwall Record Office catalogs and Henderson’s local history for early evidence of the Constantine dedication at Constantine parish. Read O’Sullivan’s paper and other modern discussions to compare chronological arguments and the strength of the identification. — request to Jesus College Library (ready to copy)

Subject: Manuscript enquiry — Jesus Coll. MS. 20 (Dumnonian genealogies / Bonedd y Saint)

references to Custennin (Constantine of Cornwall) and his placement in the genealogies (father of Erbin; grandfather of Geraint) and wish to consult material in: Oxford, Jesus College, MS. 20 (commonly cited as “Jesus Coll. MS. 20”).The folio range(s) within Jesus Coll. MS. 20 that contain the Dumnonian genealogies, Bonedd y Saint entries, and any Geraint/Erbin pedigrees.Whether there are digital images or microfilm available for those folios and, if so, the procedure and fees to obtain copies. Any published catalogue entry or shelfmark variants I should cite in publications. Whether you can provide any standard reference to a recommended edition that reproduces these passages (e.g., Bartrum’s genealogical collections) and the precise folio citations your catalogue uses.

For citation, I am using Michael Winterbottom’s edition of Gildas (Gildas: The Ruin of Britain) and wish to cross‑check the genealogical placements against Jesus Coll. MS. 20.

Thank you for your time and guidance.

Yours faithfully, Richard [surname] Plymouth, UK [email address]

Email template — request to Kresen Kernow / Cornwall Record Office (ready to copy)

Subject: Archive enquiry — Constantine parish records and early church dedication evidence

Dear Kresen Kernow Team,

I am researching the historical association between the parish/place‑name Constantine (Cornwall) and the early medieval figure Custennin / Constantine of Cornwall. I would be grateful for help locating early documentary and parochial material.

Please could you search or advise on holdings and provide guidance about access, digitisation, or copy services for the following catalogue queries and series headings:

Search keywords and headings:

“Constantine parish records” / “Constantine churchwardens’ accounts”“Constantine tithe maps” / “Constantine manor / estate papers” ,“Constantine church dedication” / “St Constantine” / “Constantine dedication”

“Diocese of Truro — Constantine” / “episcopal visitations Constantine”

“Parish registers Constantine” (pre‑1800 registers, if extant)

“Early charters / deeds mentioning Constantine church or manor” / “medieval references to Constantine”

Any references to local hagiography, saint lists, or medieval parish histories that mention St Constantine or a saint/king Constantine.

Please could you also indicate:

Exact catalogue references or series numbers for items of interest and whether digital images, catalogue summaries, or copies are available and at what cost.

Any relevant published finding aids or local history pamphlets (e.g., Charles Henderson, VCH Cornwall entries) that you hold which discuss the Constantine dedication.

Suggested search keywords and folio queries to paste into catalogues or use on phone calls

Jesus Coll. MS. 20; “Bonedd y Saint”; “Dumnonian genealogies”; “Geraint and Enid pedigree”; “Custennin Corneu”; “Erbin son of Custennin”; “Pedigrees of the kings of Dumnonia”.Kresen Kernow: “Constantine parish”; “St Constantine dedication”; “Constantine tithe map”; “Wendron/Helston parish boundary” (for local context); “manorial papers Constantine”; “Diocese of Truro — visitation Constantine”.

HISTORY
Polpenrith , alias Polpere , and Polwevorel Creeks , running up towards Constantine Church ; and a mile fartherdown , Chielow , alias Calmansake Creek , This haven, within a mile of its mouth, is secure enough for ships of 200 ton ; and at its passage into the sea, is about a mile wide. This River rises in the highest Northern part of Wendron parish , whence, in about five miles, it reaches the borough of Helston about a mile below which it forms a Lake , called the Lo Pool; the River giving rise to the Lake , and the Lake , as the most remarkable part of the Water , giving name to the River. Four brooks give rise to this River ; and uniting at Relubbas from a Western Course, turn to the North , and in three miles reach St. Erth , alias Saint Ercy Bridge, of three stone Arches, and a raised Gaucey well walled on each side, reaching cross the valley . The Bridge has been built somewhat more than 400 years, before which time there was a ferry here, and ships of great burden came up to it. The valley, above bridge, has been much raised by the sands and earth, washed down from the hills and mines ; and the haven below has suffered the same misfortune, from the sands of the Northern lea ; lb that lighters only come within a bow -lh ot of the bridge ; and that with the tide of flood, which at spring tides
flows near a mile above the bridge.

Here the land of Cornwall, is at it’s narrowest dimension ; so that from the full sea mark of Hayl on the North Sea, to the full Sea-mark at Marazion in Mount's Bay on the South Sea, the distance is but three miles. From St. Erth the Hayl bean directly North , spreading an area of sand, of half a mile wide at a medium , and two miles long, but navigable only in the chanel of the River, which admits for all ships a mile inwards from the sea under the village of Lannant. Near it’s mouth the Hayl is joined by a brook from the Enft, which , under the Parochial Church of Philac, makes a branch of this haven for ships o f 100 tons. The Sea has not only alm oft filled this fm all harbour with sand, bur form sea baralio at it's mouth, over which ships of 80 and 100 ton only can come in at the height of a spring tide ; and the bed of the whole is lo railed, that it admits the tide in it only fix hours in twelve ; so that whereas, in harbours open to the sea, the tide flow six hours, and ebbs six hours : here ’tis KilmJiuch, the Monti other wise ; in which King Arthur received his mortal wound : thus recorded by the Poet Naturam Cambela fontis Mutatam stupet este fui, transcendit in undas Sanguineus torrens ripas, et ducit in aequor Corpora caesorum ; plures natare videres, Et petere auxilium quos undis vita reliquit.”

The other, a bloody battle, fought betwixt the Cornish , and the West Saxons of Devonshire , in the year 824 ’, in which many thousands fell on each side, and the victory remained uncertain. Hence, after a run of about 12 miles, it becomes navigable for sand barges at Parbrok ; and at Eglofhel , receives a plentiful addition to it’s stream, from the River Laine A mile farther down, this River reaches the greatest bridge in this county, called Wadebridge : about the year 1460 there was a ferry here whilst the tide was in, and a very dangerous ford when the tide was retired , which moved the then Vicar of Egloshel, one Mr. Lovebon, with great industry and public spirit, to undertake this bridge ; a great and useful, but tedious work. Besides the expence, fo disproportioned to his circumftances, in the course of the work, there arose fuch difficulties, as might have baffled a more mechanical age than that in which he lived : the ground, for the foundation of some of the piers, proved so swampy, that after repeated efforts another way, they were forced at last to build on wool-packs ; however, it fhould never be forgotten, that by his follicitations, and the liberal contributions of others, but chiefly by his own perfeverance, and the blessings of providence, he lived to accomplish the bridge as it now stands, with seventeen fair and uniform arches, reaching quite cross the valley, to the great safety of travellers, and the credit of his country. Hither come up small barks of 40 and 60 ton, and supply the country with coal from Wales, with flat, which rises about ten miles off, lime, timber, and groceries from Bristol .A mile farther down the Alan makes two small Creeks on the East, in return for a brook or two which it receives; then keeping to the North-Weft, and supplying two Creeks on the Western bank which run up into St. Illy, and little Petrock pariflies, in a mile more it reaches the ancient town of Petrockstow, alias Padstow, where there is a pier, and some

In Camden, page 23. and the Elaine, (Hinnulus) in Radnorshire, and

1 See Saxon chronicle. Montgomery Ihife, &c. probably this River Lain,

m That is, the Church on the River. had the name of Elaine from the fwiftnefs of

" Some Rivers among the British, says Lhuyd it’s course. in Baxter’s glossary, page 273, take their names 0 Leland, Vol. II. page 82. ; as the Caru (Cervus) in Shropfhire,

NATURAL HISTORY
Polpenrith, alias Polpere, and Polwevorel Creeks, running up towards Constantine Church ; and a mile fartherdown , Chielow , alias Calmanfake Creek

This haven, within a mile of it s mouth, is secure enough for fhips of 200 ton ; and at its passage into the sea, is about a mile wide.
This River rises in the highest Northern part of Wendron parish , whence, in about five miles, it reaches the borough of IIlfton about a mile below which it forms a Lake , called the Lo Pool; the River giving rise to the Lake , and the Lake , as the moft remarkable part of the Water, giving name to the River *. Four brooks give rise to this River ; and uniting at Relubbas from a Westerly Course, turn to the North , and in three miles reach St. Erth , alias St. Ercy Bridge, of three ftonc Arches, and a raifed Giulcywell walled on each fide, reaching crossthe valley. The Bridge has been built fom cw hat more than 400 years , beforce which time there was a ferry here, and Ships of great burden came up to it. The valley, above bridge, has been much raised by the sand and earth, washed down from the hills and mines ; and the haven below has fullered the fame misfortune, from the sands of the Northern lea ; so that lighters only come within a bow-lhotoi the bridge ; and that with the tide of fiood, which at spring tides flows near a mile above the bridge.

Here the land of Cornwall, is at it’s narrowest dimension ;so that from the full fca mark of Hayl on the North Sea, to the full Sea-mark at Marazion in Mount's Bay on the South Sea, the distance is but three miles.

From St. Erth the Heyl bean dircflly North , spreading an area of sand, of half a mile wide at a medium , and two miles long, but navigable only in the chancl of the River, which admits fm all Ships a mile inwards from the fca under the village of Lannant.Near it’s mouth the Hcyl is joined by a brook from the East, which , under the Parochial Church of Philac, makes a branch of this haven for ships o f 100 tons.

The Sea has not only alm oft filled this small harbour with sand, bar forms a bar alio at it's mouth, over which fhips of 80 and 100 ton only can come in at the height of a spring
tide ; and the bed o f the whole is lo railed, that it adm its the tide in it only six hours in twelve ; so that whereas, in harbours open to the sea, the tide flows six hours, and ebbs six hours :

CONSTANTINE . CORNWALL

CONSTANTINE IN EARLIEST TIMES.
NATURAL ROCKS.
The northern part of the parish is strewn with granite boulders, some of gigantic proportions. One or two of these rocks, though of purely natural formation, and of more interest to the geologist than the antiquary, must, however, be mentioned here. First and foremost was the Tolmen or “Maen Rock”, a huge egg-shaped boulder which was, perhaps, the greatest natural curiosity in this part of the county until by a piece of needless vandalism it was overthrown on no less a day than Constantine Feast, Tuesday morning, March 9th, 1869.

The Tolmen was perched upon a hill-top 600 feet above sea level. It gave the name of Maen (a rock) to the neighbouring farm of Maen Poll (or Toll), while another stupendous rock gave name to it's neighbour, Maen Pearn. According to a pamphlet entitled "A Dirge on the Tolmen", published in 1923, by Mr. James Roberts of Bradford, who knew the stone well, the dimensions of the Maen Rock were as follows :— Length, 33 feet; breadth, 18 1/2 feet; height, 14 1/2 feet; weight, 750 tons. This great mass was poised upon two lesser rocks so that a passage was formed beneath it. Dr. Borlase was the first to describe it in print. He gives an engraving of it in his Antiquities of Cornwall (1769). The upper surface was honeycombed with rock basins caused by the action of the weather, and the Doctor, like most antiquaries of his age, ascribed such things to the Druids. There is, however, no reason to suppose that the stone was anything but a purely natural curiosity. The name of Tolmen appears to have been given to the stone by Dr. Borlase. It does not seem to have been its real name, although, as we shall see, the holed stone at Tolvan was so called. Some fragments of it can be still be seen at the bottom of the quarry into which it was thrown.

It was a regular resort of visitors to Cornwall and a favourite object of excursions from Falmouth. A quarry, however, had been worked for some years by Mr. W. Hosken, of Penryn, the owner of Maen Toll, and it soon became apparent that the position of the Maen Rock was becoming dangerous. Had the owner appealed for compensation, a public fund would have been raised tor its preservation as it was the mighty rods was toppled over into the quarry beneath and smashed to pieces on March 9th, 1869. Great and just was ths popular indignation at this act of vandalism, but one good thing came out of it. In April following. Sir John Lubbock used the destruction of the Tolmen as an excuse for establishing a Committee for the preservation of Ancient Monuments, and thia was the first step towards a national movement which has resulted in the passing of the Ancient Monuments Act, whereby vandalism of this sort is rendered impossible.

In the town-place of Maen Poll stands another huge rock which also excited the attention of Dr. Borlase and was engraved by him in his Antiquities. This boulder is of a remarkable shape, like an Omega, a cap or a bell, 30 feet in girth, 11 feet high with a regular plinth all around its base. This stone, like the Tolmen, is a purely natural boulder. It is locally called the Devil's Night-cap. Another natural boulder well-known in the parish is the “ Sheer ” (i.e., Chair) Rock at Trengove, in the upper part of which are circular basins like chairs or seats. Many fine rocks have been quarried away during the last century. There was a remarkable rock at Tresahar which was destroyed in this way. A rock as big as a small house can be seen in one of the fields at Trewardreva.
The remains of prehistoric man in Constantine parish are still of exceptional interest though it is evident that much has been destroyed during the past two hundred years. Before dealing with the monuments in detail, it is as well to give a general sketch of the district. At the time of the Roman occupation of Britain, that is during the first four centuries of the Christian era, it is probable that the inhabitants of Kerrier were still living within the encircling ramparts of fortified villages and sending out their cattle to roam at will over the downs that covered the uplands and through the woods that clothed the valleys. Such fields as existed for corn growing were lynchets or terraces cut on the sunny slopes of hills above the level of the woods and below that of the bleak downs. The villages occupied the same intermediate position and, as we shall see, the sites of those that are known are neither on the high granite hills nor in the deep valleys. Such roads or tracks as existed were ridgeways following the crest of the hills and when obliged to cross a valley doing so as directly as possible. The Helford River and its creeks formed valuable means of transport into the heart of the country, and the principal ridgeways in Constantine parish come from the north to harbours on the river. Tin streaming in the valleys of Wendron, Stythians, Gwennap and Constantine, is an industry almost as old as the valleys themselves, and the ridgeways above mentioned resounded with the clatter of pack-horse hoofs carrying ore to the blowing houses at Gweek, almost within living memory. Of the great antiquity of the port of Gweek there can be no doubt. The name is certainly derived from the Latin Vicus, but whether through the medium of the Saxon Wyke or direct from some Roman station there, is a problem. The latter view is, however, well supported by the presence of two camps of Roman, rather than British, type lying a mile away from the port by the side of the two principal ridgeways that lead to it. One of them is the square camp in Grambla Wood, in Wendron parish, which appears to be of the pure Roman type. The other is the rectangular earthwork adjoining the ridgeway at Carwythenack. The two rectangular earthworks at Merthen, though less obviously Roman, are connected with the north country by a ridgeway and command the whole River. No camp is at present known on the line of the main ridgeway leading to Gweek from Buttres Gate, but it is clear from field-names that an earthwork apparently of rectangular form adjoined the road at Carloggas, two miles from Gweek. The other defensive earthworks in the parish that are known are the two circular “ Rounds ” near Treviades or High Cross and on Goongilling. These are typical fortified villages in which the inhabitants lived before greater security and improved conditions of agriculture enabled them to settle in the scattered homesteads that are now such a feature of Celtic countries. Place names and field names show that there were many more of these ** Rounds ” in the pariah of which all traces have disappeared.

Monuments of a Sepulchral character, belonging in all probability to an earlier period, are also found. At Tolvan Cross is the Toll-maen, a stone slab with a hole in it which formed part of a fine Dolmen or Grambla field half a mile higher up the road shows, by its name, where a Cromlech stood. There were many barrows on the uplands of the parish, but they have been ploughed away. One can still be seen near Gweek. At Bosahan, on a knoll, is the Piskey Hall, a remarkable chambered barrow or Fogou, The largest Menhir or Long-stone ever known in Cornwall once stood at Maen Pearn, but it has been destroyed.
THE TOLVAN STONE.
At Tolvan Cross, on rising ground near Gweek, is a cottage standing where the ancient ridgeway is crossed by the old track from Carwythenack to Helston. In the yard behind this cottage is a triangular slab of granite set on edge in which is a large circular hole. Before the cottage was built in 1847, by one John Moyle, the land was croft and the stone lay on the ground, but it had formerly been upright and was regarded with veneration by people in the district. Weakly children were passed through the hole seven times to cure them of rickets and even adults submitted to the same operation for pains in the back. Where the stone stood was a pit in the ground about five feet in diameter, lined with rough spar-stones. The stone is now 7 ft. 9 in. high, 7 ft. 7in. broad at the base and about 1 ft. thick. The hole is 1 ft. 4 1/2 in. in diameter and is formed in the primitive manner by rubbing on both sides so that the edges are bevelled. It is singularly unfortunate that a cottage should have been built on the site of the remains of the only Holed-Dolmen known in Cornwall, for of such must the stone have been a part. The pit was, of course, the cist or grave, while the stone was the last surviving side stone of a
mighty Quoit or Dolmen. Holed Dolmens are common enough in France and elsewhere, but no other instance is recorded in Cornwall. The holed stone in Madron parish known as the Men-an-tol was used for the same purpose.

The Tolvan near GweeK
After the cottage was built the stone was moved to its present position in the yard fence and several pieces were cut off it to make gate posts! When the Dolmen stood alone and complete in the middle of a wild croft, it must have been an imposing monument. It gave name to the whole estate of Tolvan, properly Tol-vaen or the “ Holed stone." The Survey of 1649 refers to a part of Tolvan called Main-toll (i.e.,Holed stone) Down and mentions the “ Main-toll great stone” In the valley at the corner of this Down a little holding, now called by the singularly inappropriate name of Mount Hollman, came into being. It is clear, however, that the name is a corruption of Maen-toll-maen. There was once another Megalithic Monument on Tolvan. TheSurvey of 1649 and the Tithe Map of 1842 mention a field on Higher Tolven by the name of “Grambla Close." This name Grambla, like that of the farm in Wendron, less than a mile away, is a corruption of An-gromlech or ‘‘The Cromlech." The field in question was not, however, on the Grambla side of Tolvan but was the last Tolvan field but one on the right side of the road to Buttris Gate, opposite the Buston boundary. No traces of any monument can be seen in this field to-day, and the very name is lost.
LONG STONES or MENHIRS.
Everyone his heard of and deplored the act of vandalism which overthrew the Mien Rock in 1869,but a far more deplorable occurrence was the destruction of the great Menhir or Longstone at Maen Pearn in the 18th century. Dr. Borlase in his M.S. Notebook* (1751-1770) gives a sketch of this stone which was no less than 24 feet high and 4 feet in the ground. Its breadth appears to have been about 10 feet until half way up when it tapered to a point. In the Antiquities (1769), he states that the farmer clove it up into more than twenty gate posts. This Menhir must have been by far the largest and tallest Megalithic monument in Cornwall, on a scale equal to the great Megaliths of Brittany. In 1649 a field at Treworval bore the name of Park Menheer ( i.e., Longstone field ) and although this is no longer known, there is a stone standing in a field near the road at the lane gate which appears to be a Menhir. It is a massive piece of granite 5 feet high, 2 ft. 4 in. wide and 1 ft. 4 in. thick at the base, but tapering to a sharp point. As the stone stands at the side of the field and has no marks of recent tooling it can hardly be a mere rubbing post. In 1649 a field on Nanjarrow bore the name of Longstone Close, but this may have been derived from the tall cross which stood there.
THE PISKEY HALL AT BOSAHAN.

The most remarkable prehistoric monument in the parish is the chambered cairn at Bosahan, known as the Piskey Hall. The tumulus stands on an isolated knoll commanding an extensive view. The surrounding field bears the name of Piskey field. In 1649, however, it appears as Park-an-Pascoes, a name that supports a derivation from Pasg, feeding or fattening, i.e., “ the fattening field.” It is easy to see how this word became mixed up with the Cornish dialectic variant of the English Pixie. The tumulus has been much reduced in size, and the chamber or gallery has also been curtailed. The latter has been cut out of the ground, walled with dry masonry and roofed with large granite slabs on the old ground level. It is slightly curved and runs from north east to South west for a distance of 21 feet. The width varies from 4 1/2 to 5 feet and the height above the floor level from 4 to 6 feet. It is now in the Museum at Truro. Formerly the passage continued nine feet in the south west direction, but the roof slabs and southern wall of this part have been removed. The roofed portion serves as a rude cattle shed and for this purpose two door-jambs have been placed at one end and a wall at the other. Eight huge slabs form the roof, their interstices being filled with small stones. The courses of stone in the side walls overlap one another slightly as they ascend. From the large flat stones embedded in the mound at the N.E. end it seems probable that a smaller gallery branched off at right angles in a southerly direction and that this led to the proper entrance outside the mound. Several subterranean galleries of this type occur in Cornwall and are generally called Fogous (i.e., Caves). The largest is at Halligey, near Trelowarren. The purpose of these caves is still a matter of dispute, but it seems probable that they were built as sepulchres and used by later generations as places of refuge. Polwhele, the historian, made a superficial excavation of the Piskey Hall but found nothing save a pit of ashes.
BARROWS.
On Gweek Wartha, in what was, until modern times, a waste called "Burrow Downs,” are the remains of a large tumulus, now covered with turf, and much reduced in size when the field was enclosed. The remains of two barrows can be seen between Lestraines and Nancrossa, near the extreme northern point of the parish. They lie on either side of the old “ Dead-lane ” or Ridgeway which divides Constantine from Wendron. Both are now under the plough. Doctor Mayne informs me that two bronze Celts or Axe-heads were found at Buston many years ago, but they appear to have been lost.
EARTHWORKS.
A mile from Gweek, on the left side of the ridgeway leading to Brill, are the remains of an entrenchment known as the “ Round,  but which when perfect had the form of an irregular rectangle with rounded corners. It lies on the tenement of Mount Racket or the Rackets, a part of the Barton of Carwythenack, and is probably the Caer (or Castle) from which the latter obtained its name. In a survey of 1790, it appears as a complete field under the name of Tresair’s meadow, measuring 1 acre 2 rods 11 perches. The Ordnance Map of 1888 shows it still complete with a rampart and ditch surrounding it on all sides and planted with trees. The main-road or ridgeway ran through the eastern ditch. Unfortunately, since that time the greater part of this interesting monument has been destroyed. The southern and western sections of the rampart have been levelled and the ditch filled up. The northern section serves as a hedge but it has been partly cut down and the ditch filled.
The length of the area enclosed by the rampart was about 350 feet from East to west by about 200 from north to south This area was almost perfectly level. In 1790, the large field on the other side of the cross-roads forming part of

Lower Carwythenack bore the name of The Round Field, but although it is high ground, there are no signs of any earthwork in it. Further down towards Gweek is a tenement called Kestle Downs. It is so named in 1720. Kestle, a castle, implies the site of an earthwork. On Goongilling is a fortified village-site known as “ the Round.” It forms part of a field, and occupies a commanding position on the lofty promontory between the branches of Polwheveral Creek. It does not, however, occupy the summit of the hill, but lies a little to the south west of it where the ground begins to slope away. It is almost perfectly circular, with an internal diameter of about 150 feet, and was surrounded by a single rampart and ditch which survive on the western side. On the south both have been levelled. On the east and north the rampart remains as a hedge but the ditch has been filled up. On Treviades Barton, near High Cross, is another “ Round ” or circular village site. It occupies the summit of the isolated hill which commands the centre of the parish. The single rampart and ditch which surrounded it have been levelled, except for a segment on the western side. The internal diameter was about 120 feet. The most remarkable earthworks in the parish are the two rectangular enclosures lying in the old Deer-park at Merthen, about 350 yards North East of the present farm-house. The western enclosure measures internally about 300 feet from east to west by 180 feet from north to south. It is surrounded by a rampart 18 feet in thickness, of no great height on the inside but enclosed by a ditch 6 feet deep and 12 feet wide. In the ditch on the western side runs the ancient road that comes up from Merthen Quay and proceeded northwards over the Downs. There is an entrance to the western earthwork in the middle of its northern side. The eastern earthwork is of about the same dimensions, but lies at right angles to the other, from which it is separated by the ditch common to both. There are no means of communication from one to the other. On the east and south sides are remains of what appears to be an outer rampart on the further side of the ditch. Both enclosures have rounded angles and are under cultivation as meadows. They have been ploughed at one time. The ramparts are planted with oak trees. From the earthworks a fine view is obtained of the Helford River and its entrance. The age and purposes of the earthworks are alike uncertain. The ramparts and ditches seem to be on too large a scale for them to have been mere paddocks for deer. In addition to the earthworks already described, certain field names suggest the sites of others that have disappeared.
At Carloggas, for example, a name which itself implies the site of a Coer or Castle, are four fields in front of the farm, adjoining the ridgeway or high-road on the east side. In 1842, these were called the “ Round Closes", though square in shape, while the field on Tresidder which touches them was called in 1649, Gweal-an-gear, i.e., “ the Meadow of the Castle.” It appears therefore, that these fields formed a rectangular earthwork similar to that at Carwythenack, and like it abutting on a ridgeway. There are, however, no remains of earthworks to be seen. At Brill is a “ Round Close " named in 1649 and 1842. It lies on the hill between Brill and Bridge. At Trebarva Goodinow is a field lying close to the farm, but across the road to Trewardreva, which in 1649 was called Castle-sise and in 1842 Castle Lea. The name Gear Vean (Little Castle) is found as of a field on Lower Carwythenack in 1649, and the Round-field is named on this farm in 1842. This last was not the same as the Round at Mount Racket where the earthwork already described is situated. Park Gear (Castle field) is given as a field-name at Tregliswith Wartha in 1649. The Round is named at Tresahar Vean in 1842, and the Gear, as a field adjoining the homestead at Tresahar Vean, in 1750. A Round Meadow is named in 1842, on the high land, close to New Lestraines farm, and another at Carveddras. The name Carveddras itself implies the site of a Caer. There are thus four earthworks in the parish of which remains exist and the sites of nine others recorded by field-names.
• In this field are slight mounds which may be the remains of an entrenchment.

THE MANOR,

TITHING & BARTON OF MERTHEN

The Barton of Merthen has belonged to the Vyvyans of Trelowarren for three hundred years.

It occupies a promontory that runs out into a long tail-like point, known as the Groyne ,between the two principal arms of the Helford River. From the Barton House, and still more from the ancient earthworks 350 yards northwest of it, one obtains a view that commands the mouth of the Haven , and it is easy to understand why the Lords of Merthen have always had such extensive rights over the river. The meaning of the name Merthen is obscure. It has, however, nothing whatever to do with the place-name Merthen implying a Chapel in honour of a martyr. The earliest spelling of the name, Meredin, suggests that it is called after a Din or fortress, and the remarkable earthworks in the old Deer-park bear this out. These earthworks  consist of two rectangular enclosures, each of about one acre in area, which join each other at right angles. The site which they occupy is more commanding than the site of the farm house, and the line of a very ancient ridgeway coming from Merthen Quay northwards passes through the western ditch of one of them. There are places called Merthen in Saint Austell and Buryan. Both lie on the coast, the former on a long promontory not unlike the Groyne, though the creek on one side of it has been filled up. The word Din, a fortress, latinized into Dunum, was used for a chief’s residence or capital town. Moridunum, the sea-city is named in the Roman Itineraries as a port on the Roman road east of Exeter and is generally identified with Sidmouth. Merthen, the Meridin of the twelfth century, may well have been another Moridunum, a fortress embraced by arms of the sea, which afforded a haven protected from storms and hostile attack. Although Merthen has been a farm on the Trelowarren estate for just three centuries, it has usually been occupied by well-to-do tenants such as members of the Vyvyan family itself, the Tyackes etcetra and it has preserved much of its former dignity. 

ANCIENT ROADS AND TRACKS.

The road system of Constantine is not merely medieval, it is prehistoric. This is not intended to be a criticism of those who have charge of the roads but merely a statement of fact. There are no roads in the parish worth mentioning that have been made in modern times . We have seen that the principal roads leading northwards from the Helford River are ridgeways. The most westerly is still in use as the main road from Gweek to the Helston-Truro road, itself a ridgeway at Buttres Gate. Beyond that it once continued by Stythians, Bissoe and Baidu till it joined the principal ridgeway running along the watershed from one end of Cornwall to the other. This road brought the tin bearing region of Stythians into communication with the port of Gweek. It enters Constantine parish at a place called Ponstreath or Ponstrays, which is possibly a corruption of Penstrase, i.e., Street-end, the word strase or strad being used for a paved way, a relic of the Roman strata. At Carloggas a fortification adjoined it. At Tolvan it was crossed by the principal track leading across the parish, and the meeting place of the roads was doubtless suggested by the presence of the Tolvan Quoit. The second ridgeway from Gweek runs up to Carwythenack Chase, where an earthwork lies on its left hand. Then it went straight up over the top of Brill hill, to Trevease, passing the stone cross at the ford, and so out to join the other ridgeway at Buttres Gate. This road is only used in its lower part, but it can be traced through the crofts on Brill hill by a double line of hedges.

The third ancient ridgeway is that coming from the Quay at Merthen Hole, up through the woods, across the old deer park, where it passes through the ditch of the earthworks, so out over the Downs, across the fields to Brill. Then to Trewardreva and over the ford  which gave name to Retallack. So up the hill along past the site of Maen Rock, skirting Treworvac, across the fields to the “ Dead lane” , where it proves its antiquity by being a part of the parish boundary, then into the Lestraines lane and out to the Turnpike from Helston to Truro at Rame. The “ Dead lane ” is a strip of this ridgeway which has not been used for over a century, and is so called because It is now a cul-de-sac. On either side of it is a tumulus, for barrows, like ancient roads, are found on ridges. It is remarkable that this lane, about three-quarters of a mile in length, is the only piece of road which forms part of the Constantine parish boundary. All the rest of the boundary is formed by creeks, streams, or, for a very small distance, by hedges. At Merthen Hole it is a typical pack-horse track cut out of the rock. Its paving stones remain beneath the fields and make ploughing impossible.The fourth main ridgeway is the present main road from Penryn, entering the parish near Bossawsack and continuing past High Cross down to the river at Calamansack. There are two principal tracks across the parish from east to west, second as the lower has to traverse six deep valleys, it affords a good example of the precipitous nature of old roads.

This enters the parish from Mawnan at Tregarne Mill, passes the steep hill to Treworval , by what is now a rough lane, continues across the fields to Driff and Treviades, then down past Gwealllin to the creek-head at Polwheveral. This part bore the name Clodgy lane in 1649, a common name in Cornwall, derived, in all probability, from Clud, a carriage, or perhaps from Clodding, meaning trenched or embanked. At the bottom stood two grist mills, Tucking or Fulling Mill. The bridge over the stream was built  as appears from the contract between the parish and Roger Urd, a mason, of Tregoney, entered into the old Vestry Book. It appears to continue on the other side of the river through Tremayne and Henforth the Old road to Saint Martins. Clodgy lane at Helston. Mr. Henderson later changed his mind, and Came to the conclusion that Clodgy meant a Lazar-house. a copy of this interesting document in the present writer’s Old Cornish Bridges, One of the intriguing aspects of Britains history is the potential Roman origins of Bartons, a key location for trade through waterways. The geographical significance of Bartons suggests its vital role in facilitating commerce during ancient times. Exploring the remnants of this historical trading hub allows historians to delve deeper into Devon's past and understand its cultural and economic importance.

The origins of Barton and its association with Roman trade routes continue to inspire historical research and speculation. The abundant waterways in the region provided an ideal environment for commerce and played a vital role in connecting different areas. Historians can uncover the remnants of this ancient trading network in Bartons, gaining valuable insights into the economic activities and cultural exchange that took place in Devon centuries ago. By examining the geographical features and historical artifacts, historians can piece together the story of Bartons' significant contribution to Devon's past and the broader context of Roman trade in the region. barton  origin Old English beretūn, from bere barley + tūn stockade; see town but I have my own ideas, firstly and probably incorrectly that the ton on the end is saxon, is it , then what is the bar and why is it , so common ,that these Bartons relate , at least lets say they are old fashioned , some mention of priories under invesgation of roman port @ merthen

CHAPTER VIII.
MANORIAL HISTORY OF THE PARISH.
INTRODUCTION.
Our present system of land tenure can be traced directly back to the age of Feudalism, in spite of constant modifications which it has undergone during the intervening centuries. The farm names of Constantine or any other Cornish parish take us back, however, to the Celtic system of land tenure, about which little is known. The Saxons introduced the beginnings of Feudalism, i.e. the Tun or Manor, a sphere of jurisdiction in which one man ruled over a number of cultivators of the soil, whose condition was more or less servile. How far the elements of jurisdiction and servile status prevailed in the earlier Celtic system is uncertain. At all events the Saxon and Norman Conquests A.D. 900—1100 entailed a complete break with the earlier system. Domesday Book (1085) shows that all Cornwall was thoroughly feudalized and that the feudal ideal of Nulle terre sans Seigneur, “no land without a lord,” had been achieved. In the following pages an attempt will be made to trace the ownership of each farm in the Parish back to feudal times and to show how the land in the Parish was held. It is by no means easy to recapture the old tenurial structure. The evidence is often defective or conflicting. In later years when feudal tenure had become simply a matter of small monetary dues, such as High Rents, Reliefs, etc., tenures were lost or obscured. In the Feudal period itself great confusion was caused by Sub-infeudation, whereby several mesne or Middle Lords might come to stand between the original Lord and the Free-holder of the soil. This practice was stopped by the passing of the Great Statute Quia emptores in 1290. Constantine Parish has many instances of Sub-infeudation to show, but, setting this aside, we find in the time of Domesday (1085) that five overlords shared the parish between them, as follows:—
The King as Lord of Winnianton held Merthen, Bonallack, Gweek, Carwythenack, Trevassack, Trengilly, Lanner, Trethowan, Polpenwith, Nancenoy, Brill, Naffene, Chygwidden, Retallack, Ethnevas, Treglidgwith, Nanjarrow, Tresaher Veor, and Mayne.
History of Constantine
72
II.
III.
IV.
Wihumarc the Breton as Lord of Tucoys, held Tucoys, Boreas,Boswidjack, Penhalguy, Crowgy, Mellingey, Tresidder, Carlaminny, Tolvan, Nanstrisack, Seworgan, Carloggas, Trebarva Woon, Treleggan, Tregontallen, Treworrac, Lestrainess,
Carvedras, Trevease, Trengove and Trewardreva.

The Count of Mortain, Lord of Cornwall, as usurper of the Church lands of the Celtic monastery of Langostentyn, held Langostentyn (Churchtown), Polwheveral Wartha, Penbothidno, Goongilling, Trebarra-Goodinow, and Bosahan.

These lands were afterwards annexed to Tucoys. Richard Fitz Turold, Lord of Cardinan and seneschal of the Count of Mortain, held Treviades, PolwheveralWollas, Inow, Iccomb, Gweal-mellin, Treworval, Trecrobn, Nancorras, Bosathick, Bossawsack, Bosvarren, Trenarth, Trewince, Pensaverran and Calamansack.
 

 The Bishop of Exeter, as Lord of Treliever or Penryn, held Helford Passage, Treath, Budoc-Vean, Chycoose and Trebah. Sub-infeudation, however, soon reduced this orderly division to confusion. The Count of Mortain as Lord of Cornwall was actually the over-lord of II. and IV. His successors, the earls of Cornwall, acquired the overlordship of I. A group of secondary Manors was formed during the Middle Ages.
Merthen grew out of Winnianton. The Manor of Carwythenack grew out of Merthen. The old Church-lands became the Manor of Polwheveral and the Cardinan fief on the east split up into the Manors of Treworval, Treviades and Trenarth.
In 1522 there were 60 land-owners in the parish, of whom about 16 were resident. In 1649 the numbers were respectively 49 and 9, and in 1842 45 and 20. Since the break up and sale of the Scott, Hill, Trefusis and Bolitho estates, when the tenants for the most part acquired the freehold of their farms, the number of resident land owners has been greatly increased. At the present time the only considerable estates in the parish are those of D. M. Horsford Esq. and Col. Sir Courtenay B.Vyvyan Bart. The latter has, however, disposed of his lands at Calamansack and Church-town.
Manorial History
Most of the land sold by Colonel the Hon. H. W. F. Trefusis in 1920 had never been bought or sold before, having descended to him from his ancestors who held it in feudal times. Merthen has been sold but once. The rest of the land in the parish has changed hands several times but the Glebe has been Church property ever since the establishment of the Celtic Church, i.e. for over a thousand years.
THE MANOR OF POLWHEVERER
OR POLWHEVERAL.
We have seen that the ancient Church lands of Constantine were held in the 13th century by a family surnamed de Sancto Constantino under the lords of Tucoys by the service of half a Knight’s fee, and that Nicholas de Sancto Maugano, Lord of Mawgan, who was probably a son of John fitz Peter de Sancto Constantino, permitted his free-tenant Serlo de Nansladron to exchange the advowson of the Church with the Chapter of Exeter’s Manor of Methleigh. It remains to trace the half a Knight’s fee of which Nicholas de Saint Maugan was Lord. As the Church and Churchtown had been alienated to the Nansladrons, Polwheverer Wartha (now Polwheveral Wartha) remained the principal holding in the half fee, so the name of the manor of Polwheveral came to be applied to it. In 1298 (Assize Rolls No. 1315) John de Treres and Edith his wife brought an assize of novel disseisin against Simon de St. Maugan, Richard de Polwhefrer, and John le Mouner of Trevyados for 1 1/2 English acres in Penbuthuniou next the vill of St. Constantine (i.e. Penbothidno). It was agreed in Court that Simon should quit-claim the lands to John and Edith and her heirs. Simon de Sancto Maugano and Isabella his wife held St. Maugan in 1302 (Ped-Fin Cornwall No. 377). Thomas de Sancto Maugano held one Knight’s fee in St. Maugan in 1382.41 This was the Manor of St. Mawgan, afterwards held by the Randall family. 41 Rental of Utho at Nettlecombe.
74
How and when the Lordship of Polwheveral passed from the St. Maugans to a family surnamed de Polwheverer is not clear. We have seen that Richard de Polwhefrer was concerned in the disseisin at Penbothidno in 1298. In 1327 he was one of the two Collectors of the Subsidy in Constantine Parish. A 16th century document at Enys states that Margaret the daughter and co-heir of John de Behethlan who held land at Behethlan (now Bohelland near Penryn) married Roger Polwheyrell and had issue Nicholas Polwheyrell, who had issue James Polwheyrell, who had issue Richard and three daughters, Margery wife of Simon Merther-myler, Joan wife of James Treberveth, and Isabella wife of William Tregarne, who died s.p. Richard Polwheyrell married Matilda Polgos and had issue a daughter and heiress Nichola, who married John Penweyren (Penwarne) and had issue Thomas Penweyren, who died s.p., whereupon the descendants of his great aunts became his heirs, viz the two daughters of Margery Merther-myler,—Elsetta, who married Nicholas Menke then living and had issue Isabella wife of John Rescaden42, and Meliora who married Michael John Vicar and had issue Joan (wife of Hugh Sandry); Elizabeth (wife of Laures Michell); and Margaret (wife of James Carallack) : and Joan Treberveth aforesaid who had issue Marina and Joan.43 This complicated pedigree is here given because it shows the descent of the Manor of Polwheveral and explains how it came to be split up among so many co-heirs. In the list of Landowners in Constantine for 1522 most of the names appear. The pedigree is borne out by contemporary evidence. In 1447, for example, Richard Wydeslade as Lord of Tucoys received the homage of Richard son and heir of James Polwheverer for lands in Logustentin, Penbuthyniow, Polwheverer wartha, Treberwith, Bosseghan and Trewardreve held of the Manor of Tucoys in knights’ service. In 1484 Richard Wydeslade received of John Penweren 33/4 for a relief due for half a knight’s fee in the lands above-named on the death of Richard Polwheverer, which he (John) held in right of Nichola his wife, the daughter and heiress of the said Richard. 41 Rescadden is a small farm in Manaccan. Here lived Laurence Rescadden. See pp. 82—85. 43 Married to—Kelwa and Martin Ranlyn in 1523 Star Chamber Proc.
The Manor of Polwheveral
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In 1501 John Penwarn did homage to Lady Marion Wydeslade for the half fee he held in right of his wife in Langustenten, Penbuthyniow, Polweveaer wartha, Treberveth, Bosseghan and Trewodreva. In 1540, however, homage was due for the half fee by Thomas Retyn, on the death of Richard Retyn44, and in 1570 by Roger Ryse alias Retyn on the death of Thomas Retyn, as his kinsman and next heir. The exact relationship between the Retyns and the Polwheverers and between the Rises and the Retyns is not quite clear, but that the Rises were eventually heirs of Polwheverer and Lords of the Manor is certain. Retyn, which gave name to the family, is a small Manor in St. Enoder parish. Thomas Retyn' appears as a subsidy payer in Constantine in 1543. He was buried there in 1570. His widow Jane (? daughter an heir of John Nancarrow) remarried John Dinam of Lifton, esq., who was living at Maen in 1576. Roger Rise appears to have lived at Trewardreva, which became thenceforth the capital of the Manor of Polwheveral. In 1574, when his eldest son Thomas Rise was about to marry Thomasine, daughter of Edward Humfry of Gerrans, gent, (whose portion was £100, a house in Penryn and some land at Treryboe-Wartha [Trebah], he made a settlement of his lands to give her a jointure of £10 per annum. Roger Rise’s lands included Trewardreva and the mill, Trebarveth, Carvedres Vean, Polwhevrall and the woods, Buthack-Vyan, Bosahan,
Penbuthidnou, Logostenton and Polwartha, all in Constenton, with other lands in Wendron, Crowan, Breage, St. Hilary, St. Just, Gerrans, St. Ewe, Retyn, St. Enoder, Penryn, Budock, Ladock, Zennor, Morvah, Paul, Sancreed, St. Ives and Newlyn. Buthack-Vean (Budock Vean) was to be her dower-house after the death of Jane Dinham, the widow of Thomas Retyn. Roger Rise undertook to allow his son Thomas, his wife and children, “as well in sickness as in health, meat, drink, lodging and apparel at his mansion house.” Roger Rise died between 1584 and 1594. He left three sons—Thomas,
 Neither the name of Rise nor Retyn is found in the list of landowners and residents in 1522. At that time the Manor of Polwheveral appears to have been split up among the coheirs. Henry and William, but Thomas inherited all his lands and lived at Trewardreva. In 1594 he confirmed the settlements made by Thomas Retynne and Roger Ryse, gent, deceased, of lands in Trewardrevath, Trebarveth-Goodinou, Carveddras-Vean, Bosseghan, Costenton, Polwheverer Wartha and Wolas, etc.
Thomas Rise was a large landowner, and increased his fortune, as did so many Cornish Gentlemen of the 16th century, by acting as Steward and Agent for his richer neighbours. He was, for example, Steward of the Manor of Tucoys. As he had no son, his four daughters became his co-heiresses when he died in 1621 45seised (inter alia) of the Manor of Polwheverer, with land in Trewardrevath, Trebarveth-Goodynou, etc., held of Tucoys in knight’s service. Jane, the eldest daughter, had married Thomas Trewren of Drift in Sancreed, and their son Thomas (aged 17 at his grandfather’s death) received the Constantine property for his portion. He lived at Trewardreva, which continued to be the seat of his descendants until the last century. Dorothy, the second daughter, brought to Robert Langford, her husband, the estate of Budoc Vean. Winifred, the third, married John Enys of Enys, and added Bohell and and other lands near Enys to the patrimony of that ancient family. Mary, the youngest daughter, married Thomas Flamanke and brought him the St. Enoder and Ladock property. From them descend the Flamanks now living in that district to-day. According to Doctor Borlase, writing in 1750, the stone shield over the old entrance at Trewardreva, with the initials of Thomas Rise, showed the arms of Rise (A Chevron between three bean pods) quartering Retyn (. . . afesse. . .) Polwheverell (... a cross), Treskillerd 46 (a chevron between three squirrels), Nanskoras (Two lions passant) and Humfrey (on a cross, four escallops). This shield, which is still in a good state of preservation, has for its quarter the arms of Trewren, Az. a chevron Or between three bezants. An Elizabethan MS. at Enys gives the quarterings of Rise in this order:—Rise, Retyn, Tresquillert, Nanscore, Steeks47 (?), Treberva, Polwherver, Behethlan and Humfrey. 45 Inq.p.m. 1621. Treskillard is in Illogan. Thomas Trescullard is named as a small landowner in Constantine in 1522. *7 Perhaps Stokes. Richard Stokes was a small landowner and a wealthy resident in Constantine in 1522.

Trewardreva
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Six generations of Trewrens were lords of the Manor of Polwheveral and lived at Trewardreva. Thomas Trewren (1683-1759) re-modelled the Elizabethan house there in 1719. His grandson, another Thomas, removed to Taunton before 1818. He had one son, John, whom he disinherited, and four daughters,—Harriet, who married—Pyne ; Mary Anne, who married Charles Scott, Barrister at Law; Elizabeth, who married Capt. Thomas Durell, R.N.; and Catherine, who married James Plomer, Town Clerk of Helston. Mr. Trewren, having disinherited his son, devised his lands to his daughters, Mrs. Scott and Mrs. Plomer, who made a partition of them. Both had issue. The Scotts lived at Trewardreva 48 which, with Polwheveral, Goongillan, Trengove, and Carvedras, fell to their share, about 387 acres in all. The Plomers obtained Ethnevas, and most of Carvedras, about 276 acres in all. The Rev. Charles Scott, of Newport (Mon.), was the eldest son of Mr. and Mrs. Scott, who had 10 other children. He sold the estate in parcels. Trewardreva was purchased by Mr. Hearle, whose family owned and farmed it until about 1920, when they sold it to the present occupier Mr. Nash, of Plymouth. Around the memory of “ Lawyer Scott ” have gathered all the folk tales that have been woven round Trewardreva during the three centuries of its existence as the “ great house ” of the neighbourhood. He is supposed to hunt with ghostly horse and hounds on the road
from Brill to Chegwidden. Being a “ Lawyer ” he was, of course, a hard, unjust man.
TREWARDREVA.
It has been shown that in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries, Trewardreva (properly Trewodreva) was the Manor house of Polwheveral and in the 15th century was considered part of the half a knight’s fee which comprised that manor. In 1302, however, Trewodreve, with Trengof, Trenkuliek, Kaerwedrosbyghan and other lands, was held by Laurence de Halap and Joan his wife in her right. (Ped. Fin. No, 383). 48 Mr. Scott was actively interested in local industries. He built a Quay
on his land at Polwheveral, for the shipment of granite, which is still known as Scott’s Quay. He was already living at Trewardreva in 18x4.
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History of Constantine
In 1362 the services of Laurence Halap in Carwedros and Trewodreve were claimed by the manor of Reskymer, but in 1528 it is shown that the Lord of Reskymer was only a mesne lord, for in that year he was sending a quit rent to the Lord of Polwheverell from Trewardreve, holden of him (Reskymer) in socage by rent of a pair of white gloves. The senior branch of the Haleps held the manor of Lamorran Laurence Halap, who appears to have been a son of near Truro. Oliver Halap son of Oliver Tregonyon near Lamorran, married Joan, heiress of
who brought him his lands in Constantine.
Skyburiow mawgan ofTregonyon 1339, who was probably
Their son was Oliver halap of
jr
the father of Laurence Halep of Tregonyon 1389, the presumed father
of James Halep of Tregonyon who died about 1450.
(For the later history of Trewardreva, see the preceding account
of Polwheveral Manor.)
TREWARDREVA HOUSE.
Trewardreva House is still an interesting and dignified old building, in spite of the hard treatment which it received during the last century. As built about 1600 by Thomas Rise (whose shield of arms is over the doorway) its plan was the shape of the letter E. In 1719, as appears from a date-stone in the porch gable, Thomas Trewren re-modelled the whole, inside and out, in the dignified “Queen Anne” style then prevalent. He took out the mullioned
windows and substituted sashes. He refaced the front with blocks of
granite ashlar, adding a parapet with vases of stone. Inside he
re-built the rooms with elegant plaster ceilings and rich panelling.
On the west side of the house he built a fine stable which yet
stands, a model of dignified simplicity, and in which granite is used
to the very best effect.
The ornamental work in granite with which the grounds were
decorated also calls for remark. There were three entrances guarded
by tall ball-capped pillars, one remains. Stone seats, stiles and
recumbent lions49 flanked two of these entrances. Behind the house
are spacious fruit gardens walled with red-brick.
49 The stone lions in Grove Place, Falmouth, and those at the entrance to
Bosvathick, with the line stone pillars there, are said to have come from
Trewardreva.
Details at Trewardreva House (a)
8o
History of Constantine
After Trewardreva was sold by the Scotts it became a farm.
The house was found to be too large and the western half was pulled
down. The principal entrance to the domain was removed at the
same time, and a row of substantial cottages built with the stone
taken from the house. The grand staircase in the destroyed portion
is said to have been removed to Trenython near Par.
Details at Trewardreva House (b)
When the house was thus curtailed, the front porch was covered
with an unsightly greenhouse and a new front door made in the
western wall.
Polwheveral Wartha and Penbothidno
81
Mr. Nash, the late owner and occupier, has managed to
preserve the interesting old house from further decline. Three
principal rooms remain on the ground floor. The old hall, entered
from the porch, has a Georgian fireplace of wood. The study is a
good example of a small “ Queen Anne ” room, save that its fine
plaster ceiling has gone. It is panelled throughout in oak. The
parlour in the eastern wing is a beautiful room, retaining its panelling,
plaster cornice and ceiling almost complete. Above it is the old
saloon, now a bed-room, a noble room with a lofty tunnelled ceiling
and wooden panelling on the walls. Over the mantelpiece is a
landscape painted in oils on a panel. A secret staircase leads in
the thickness of the wall from this room to a cellar below the ground
floor.
Besides the saloon, there are two good bedrooms, each with oak
panelling. The broad staircase has wide and shallow steps. It is
panelled with mahogany.
POLWHEVERAL WARTHA.
The peninsula of Goongilling, formerly Goongillan (=“the harbour
down”), formed the common and wood of the Manor of Polwheveral.
Polwartha, though named in 1574, seems to be a shortened form of
Polwheveral Wartha.
Polwheveral Wollas, on the other side of the stream, with its corn
and fulling mills, formed no part of the Manor but, belonged to the
Lords of Treviades.
PENBOTHIDNO.
The small estate of Penbothidno was originally part of
Polwheveral Manor, but, as we have seen, it was alienated as a free
tenement to John de Treres in 1298 (see p. 73). In 1617 Grace
Reskymer was living there in her widow-hood (p. 112). The land
belonged, however, partly to Rise and Trewren of Trewardreva and
partly to the Chiverton family.
In 1613 Henry Chiverton5 of Trehunsey, Esq., held
Penbuthiniowe as a free tenant of the Manor of Treviades by rent of
8d. and suit. Before 1649 it had been bought by Trefusis, Lord of
that Manor, and in 1842 belonged to his descendant Lord Clinton.
As heir, perhaps, of Butsyde of Godrevy.
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History of Constantine
TREBARVA-GOODINOW.
Trebarva-Goodinow (37 acres), meaning, perhaps, the “near”
Trebarva to distinguish it from Trebarva-Woon, on the downs, was
possibly the Trebervet which Benedict son of William de Banadluc
granted to Geoffrey his brother to hold at a rent of 2/- for a pair of
white gloves, 3d. for Mollet (money) and suit of court except a gallon
of wine. This grant51 (made circa 1250) was witnessed by John de
St. Constantine, Thomas his brother, Richard de Trenerth, Baldwyn
de Trewyadas, Richard the Smith of Crengy, Peter de Trewaduck
(Trevassick) and Maurice the Clerk.
Trebarva was later part of the Trewardreva estate held by the
Rise and Trewren families. In 1842 it belonged to James Plomer
and Catherine his wife.
A field in front of Trebarva house bears the interesting name of
Castle Sise (1649) or Castle Lea (1842).
BOSAHAN.
Bosahan, properly Bosseghan (70 acres), styled a Barton in 1700, is reckoned some of the best land in the parish. It was also part of the manor of Polwheveral. Among the proceedings in the Court of Requests temp. Elizabeth (Ixvii. ii.) is a complaint by Lawrence Rescaden of Manaccan, gentleman, the owner of part of Bosaghan in Constantyne, against John Tregosse of Trewothack, esq. and James Trenerthe of Trenarth gent, (see p. which throws so vivid a light
upon life in Cornwall during the 16th century and had so curious a
sequel that it is worth referring to here at some length.
It appears from Rescaden’s Bill of Complaint that his neighbours,
John Penrose of Tregithew and Nora his wife, were laying claim to
his lands which lay in Manaccan, Bosaghan and elsewhere. Tregosse
and Trenerthe “ perceiving your orator to be both poor and simple,”
promised to aid him against his adversary on condition that he followed
their advice, which was to ride to the assizes at Launceston with
them and there levy a fine, i.e. make a settlement of his lands,
appointing them as his trustees. This he did, and, being unable to
61 P.R.O. Anc. Deeds A 12051.
Bosahan
83
read, was persuaded to put his mark to a document which, as he
thought, settled his lands to the use of his own heirs for ever but in
reality settled them upon the heirs of Tregosse, Trenerthe being
merely a fellow conspirator “ a verie lewd person of no abilitie, wealth
or substance.”
To get Rescadden away from his friends to come
with them to the Assizes, they terrified him by saying that Sir John
Killigrew, the all-powerful governor of Pendennis was threatening to
put him on trial for his life, although, as he naively remarks, “ your
Orator has never at any time in his life committed any fault whereby
he might incur the danger of his life by the laws of the realm.”
The trial came on in 1579 after long delays. John Tregoose
managed to avoid the summons of the court. Richard Chamond esq.
and the other commissioners appointed to hear the depositions of
witnesses reported to the court that “ on the occasion of the sickness
of the plague having entered into his house at Trewothacke (in
St. Anthony) Tregosse in avoyding the infection, hath departed
from his house into the country and also being greatly diseased by
reason of an infirmity he hath in one of his leggs doth not commonly
travel.”
He and Trenerthe, however, sent in their answer. It was quits
another story. Lawrence Rescaden, it seems, had no issue male, but
only daughters, and having received at divers times “ monyes,
friendshippes and jentleness ” from Tregosse and having a suspicion
that some of the children borne him by his wife were not his own,
resolved that his lands should go to Tregosse and his heirs after his
death, charged only with an annuity of £7/4/8 to Jane his wife.
Rescaden made this settlement out of his “ meare goodwill ” and the
case would never have arisen if Sir John Killigrew, out of his “ unsacyable
greadyness” and without any respect of justice or right, had not
begun to encroach upon Rescaden’s land at Pryslo52 and found that he
had to deal not only with the poor little Rescaden but with the
powerful Tregosse of Trewothack, the reversioner of the lands. James
Trenerthe protested that he had no share in any conspiracy, that his
sister Jane was Rescaden’s wife.
Witnesses appeared before the Commissioners at Truro on
April 14, 1579. Sir John Kyllegrewe (aged 56) admitted that he had
advised Rescaden to reveal the injuries he had received from Tregosse,
but that his motive was not lucre or gain but only pytty. It must be
owned, however, that pity was not a marked characteristic of the bold
piratical family of Killigrew. Thomas Geyrveyes esq. (of Bonallack),
" Prislow adjoins Sir John Killigrew’s lake, Swanpool, near Falmouth.
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History of Constantine
aged 40, the next witness, recounted an interesting scene. Some years
before, he and his father had been at Trewothack when Tregosse,
Trenerthe and Rescaden were drawing up the fatal settlement. Old
Richard Gerveys took the deed and drawing Rescaden aside, read it
aloud to him pointing out that if he sealed it he would lose his lands
and cease to be reputed a gentleman.
Rescaden, however, felt that the settlement would afford a fixed
rent for his wife and children and that it would safeguard them
against the claims made by the Penroses. Richard Tredynnan, gent.,
aged 74, who was also present at Trewothack, adds the interesting
information that Richard Gerveys read out the contents of the deed
to Rescaden “ bothe in Inglishe and Cornishe.” So the deed was
sealed. The scribe was none other than Thomas Cole, Rector of
Landewednack from 1571 until his resignation in 1622, who, according
to a note made by one of his successors in the Parish Register about
1680, was about 120 years of age “ by far ” when he died. He has
therefore held an honoured place in the list of Cornish centenarians.
It is to be feared, however, that he deserved honour neither as a
centenarian nor as a good Parson. In 1583 (Exchequer Depositions)
he gave his age under oath as 40. He was certainly dead in 1629
when his widow is named in a deed. If therefore, he died in that
year, he can only have been 86. As to his character, it appears only
too plainly from the proceedings in the Rescaden case that he was a
thoroughly bad lot. He was an expert forger of deeds and had been
condemned and imprisoned for forgery but escaped and came secretly
to Trewothack, where Tregosse kept him together with his concubine
one Annie Kent, “ a common and lewde woman,” for several years,
until Mrs. Tregosse, “did at length fall out with the said Annie
Kent.” In the meantime Tregosse interceded with the Bishop for
Cole, who was allowed to go back to his Parsonage of Gonewala yn
Lezard (Landewednack) where be and Annie Kent kept open house
for the local gentry, selling them wine and providing them with
pleasures of a more questionable nature. A strange destiny for the
remote Parsonage of Landewednack to have been the only Country
Club in Cornwall during the reign of Queen Elizabeth! So Rescaden
when he came to Trewothack, walked straight into the lion’s den.
He was a poor simple man indeed. Thomas Chynoweth, gent,
(of Mudgeon) aged 60, gave evidence that he was at the Assizes when

Bosahan
85
Rescaden came into Court to declare his wish to confirm the Settlement. The Judge asked him what money Tregosse had given him as a consideration. “ I had no monye,” said the poor fool, whereupon Mr. Tregosse “ tooke him by the arme and saide unto him in Cornishe “ If you say so, you mar all, for that is the force of the writing.” Here again is a bit of evidence of the prevalance of the Cornish language among the squires of the Meneage so late as 1580. The result of the trial is not found among the records of the Court, but a rare little book  entitled the “ Life and death of Thomas Tregos,” a noted non-confirmist preacher at Penryn in the 17th century, refers to the fact that this pious and devout man believed it to be his duty to atone for the wrong done by his ancestor John Tregos to Rescaden. “ One Mr. Rescadden ” the book runs “ going in Pilgrimage, his wife had in his absence a child, or more; whereupon at his return, John Tregosse advised him to settle his estate on some friend, for the use of his wife and children, lest, after his death, the heir at Common Law should turn his children out of doors. Mr.
Roscadden embracing his advice, desired him to accept of this trust, which
accordingly he did; but instead of a deed in trust, he made it absolute to
himself and his heirs. As soon as Mr. Roscadden was dead, the said John
Tregosse entered on his lands and turned the wife and children out of doors;
who for sometime lay in a hog-stie and every morning went forth on the dung
hill, there on their knees imprecating the vengeance of God on Tregosse
and his heirs. After this time the judgements of God signally appeared
against this Family; Walter his son falling off his horse in a fair way, broke
his neck; others of his issue came to an untimely death ; and a curse
hath remained on the estate ever since. This Mr. Thomas Tregosse
(whose life we now relate) was so greatly sensible of, as that it cost him
many Prayers for the removing of this curse, as he himself assured me.’’
Although Bosahan is named among the lands of the foolish Rescaden,
this can only refer to a part of the estate. Most of Bosahan was held
by the Nances of Truthall in Sithney, an interesting Tudor house with
a 15th century Hall still standing. Richard Nans or Nance left two
daughters. Elizabeth the elder married first John Courtenay of
Tremeer in Lanivet and then Thomas Arundell of St. Columb esq.
She left her Manors of Truthall and Prospidnick in Sithney to her
eldest sons by both husbands, Richard Courtenay and Thomas Arundell.
These were the owners of two-thirds of Bosahan in 1649. The other
third was presumably held by the descendants of the other Nance
heiress who married Giles Grenville.
w There is a copy in the Bodleian. Pamphlets Vol. 167. An account of
Tregosse: and his persecutions will be found in my History of Mabe.
History of Constantine
86
At this time the lessee of Bosahan was Anthony Chepman, a
wealthy farmer who bought the two-thirds belonging to Arundell and
Courtenay soon afterwards, and annexed them to the Manor of
Carwythenack which he bought from the Tremaynes in 1653.
These Chepmans do not appear to have come to Constantine until
Edward Chepman married Christian Nankivell there in 1610. He
was, perhaps, of the family of Chepmen of Resprynn (see Vivian’s
Visitations p. 85). He is styled at first a yeoman, and then, as he grew
prosperous, a gentleman. His initials, with the date 1638, appear cut
in a piece of free-stone taken from the old house at Bosahan and now
built into the front of the new one. Anthony his eldest son was born
in 1614, and made a good match with Anne, the daughter of John
Gerveys esq. of Bonallack, in 1644. They had several children,
including two sons, Edward and John. In a letter written by the
Governor of Pendennis Castle to the Prince of Wales dated April 11,
1646, while the place was closely besieged by the forces of the
Parliament, mention is made of the desertion of Major Chepman
“ formerly a good officer ” who had been put in command of the out
work and was in treaty with the enemy to betray it. As most of the
officers and men at Pendennis were Cornishmen, it is possible that
Major Chepman the traitor was Anthony of Bosahan. At all events
the latter does not appear to have suffered under the regime of the
victorious Puritans. Throughout the period of usurpation 1649—1660
he was the leading man in the parish and was the wealthiest inhabitant
but one in 1660. He was still living at Bosahan, where he died in
1663.
Edward Chepman, the elder son, succeeded to Bosahan and
Carwythenack. In 1674 he married Margaret Bligh of Botathan near
Launceston, and when he died in 1698 she had Bosahan as a dower
house. In 1700 their son Edward Chepman, born in 1697, made a
settlement of his lands, including the Barton of Bosahan (where he and
his mother were living), on the occasion of his marriage to Elizabeth,
daughter of John Hitchens of St. Ives, merchant, a member of the
well-known St. Ives family of Hichens, which has since produced
several well-known men including Mr. Robert Hichens, the novelist.
There appear to have been no children of this marriage, for when
Edward Chepmen the younger died, his uncle John Chepmen of
Wendron succeeded to his lands, albeit much encumbered with
Bosahan
87
mortgages and sold Carwythenack with two-thirds of Bossahan or
Bossagan, to Peter Hill, merchant of Falmouth, in 1716. Elizabeth,
Edward Chepmen’s widow, was still living there in 1722.54
After this sale Bosahan passed with Carwythenack, until the last
century, when it came with Trengilly to the Rev. Richard Hill. Both
farms were sold by his grandson Captain Hill, R.N. in 1919.
Bosahan farm was bought by the occupier, Mr. Medlyn, but Bosahan
and Trengilly woods were retained, and are now the property of
Mrs. Hill, widow of the late Admiral Peter W. E. Hill, R.N., grandson
of the Rev. Richard Hill.
The present farm-house at Bosahan is modern. Its predecessor,
now used as out-buildings, does not, however, appear to be much
older than 1800.
The most remarkable objects on the farm are the Piskey Hall
(see p. 10) and the Cross-base (see p. 23). A circular quern or
hand corn-mill is built into the hedge of the field on the north side of
the farm lane.
Bosahan is well-watered by leats brought from higher ground, so
that its possible meaning the “ Dry House” no longer holds good.
In 1649, Bosahan, estimated at 50 customary acres, had 16 acres
of downs, 7 of crofts. The wood does not appear to have existed.
For the last two centuries at least the estate of Bosahan has been
charged with the upkeep of the North Chapel or “ Bosahan Aisle” in
Constantine Church (see p. 32).
M According to an account of the Hichens’ family printed in Boase’s
Collectanea (p. 356) her husband left his property to “ a stranger ” because she
would not promise not to re-marry. She died at St. Ives in 1749. Edward
Chepman is described as a “ Merchant of Flushing.

Trethowan
123
the estate was held in undivided moieties by Christopher Walker (J) Richard Gerveys (J) John Thom’s (|). It was afterwards purchased
entirely by the Trefusis family and added to their manor of Treworval.
In 1842 Lord Clinton was the owner.
Some stone archways are all that remain of the Elizabethan
mansion of the Penticosts.
TRETHOWAN.
Trethowan (120 acres) gave name and origin to a family of small gentry, resident here in the 16th and 17th centuries. The name Trethowan is still found in the parish. Alan Trethouen paid the subsidy in 1327. Henry Trethowyn did homage to the Lord of Merthen for a Cornish acre held in Trethowyn in Knight’s service. In
1528 part of Trethowyn was held by the heirs of Trethowyn and part,
with Polpry, by Gerveys of Bonallack, both under the Manor of
Merthen in Knight’s service. John Trethowan of Trethowan married,
in 1582, Avis, daughter of Thomas Enys of Enys by Katherine
Reskymer of Merthen. In 1649 and 1660 Thomas Trethowan was
living at Trethowan, which was his freehold. In 1726 John Trethowan
owned it.3
After that the family appears to have sold its land to the Vyvyans
of Trelowarren. C. S. Gilbert (<Survey of Cornwall II, 184) in 1820
noticed “ a shield over the entrance of the house which is supposed to
bear the Arms of Trethowan, apparently three garbs.” Trethowan
farm house is in ruins and shows no traces of ancient work except
some granite quoins. The shield has disappeared. Trethowan is now
farmed with Merthen.
There is said to be a crock of gold buried at Trethowan , and more
than one vain attempt has been made to discover it.
3 John Trethowan, gent., married Sarah Winn at Constantine on Nov. 18,

Constantine of Dumnonia

ˈkɒnstənt, Welsh:Cystennin, 520–523 was a 6th-century king of Dumnonia in sub-Roman Britain, who was remembered in later British tradition as a legendary King of Britain. The only contemporary information about him comes from Gildas, who castigated him for various sins, including the murder of two "royal youths" inside a church. The historical Constantine is also known from the genealogies of the Dumnonian kings, and possibly inspired the tradition of Saint Constantine, a king-turned-monk venerated in Southwest Britain and elsewhere.

In the 12th century , Geoffrey of Monmouth included Constantine in his pseudohistorical chronicle Historia Regum Britanniae , adding details to Gildas' account and making Constantine the successor to King Arthur as King of Britain . Under Geoffrey's influence , Constantine appeared as Arthur's heir in later chronicles . Less commonly , he also appeared in that role in medieval Arthurian romances and prose works , and in some modern versions of the legend.

Southern Britain in c. 540, the time of Gildas . Constantine's likely kingdom of Dumnonia is in the southwest; the territory of the Damnonii is in the northwest.

The 6th-century monk Gildas mentions Constantine in chapters 28 and 29 of work De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae . Constantine is one of five Brittonic kings whom the author rebukes and compares to Biblical beasts. Gildas calls Constantine the "tyrannical whelp of the unclean lioness of Damnonia", a reference to the books of Daniel and Revelation, and apparently also a slur directed at his mother. This Damnoniais generally identified as the kingdom of Dumnonia in Southwestern Britain. Scholars such as Lloyd Laing and Leslie Alcock note the possibility that Gildas may have instead intended the territory of the Damnonii, a tribe in present-day Scotland mentioned by Ptolemy in the 2nd century, but others such as Thomas D. O'Sullivan consider this unlikely.

Gildas says that despite swearing an oath against deceit and tyranny, Constantine disguised himself in an abbot's robes and attacked two "royal youths" praying before a church altar, killing them and their companions. Gildas is clear that Constantine's sins were manifold even before this, as he had committed "many adulteries" after casting off his lawfully wedded wife. Gildas encourages Constantine, whom he knows to still be alive at the time, to repent his sins lest he be damned. The murders may relate to a 6th-century cult in Brittany honoring the Saints Dredenau, two young princes killed by an ambitious uncle.

Scholars generally identify Gildas' Constantine with the figure Custennin Gorneuor Custennin Corneu (Constantine of Cornwall) who appears in the genealogies of the kings of Dumnonia. Custennin is mentioned as the father of Erbin and the grandfather of the hero Geraint in the Bonedd y Saint, the prose romance Geraint and Enid, and after emendation, the genealogies in Jesus College MS 20.Based on Custennin's placement in the genealogies, Thomas D. O'Sullivan suggests a floruit for Constantine of 520–523.

Saint Constantine .

Constantine (British saint)

Saint Constantine's Church in Constantine , Cornwall , perhaps connected to the historical king of Dumnonia . The historical Constantine of Dumnonia may have influenced later traditions, known in Southwestern Britain as well as in Wales , Ireland , and Scotland , about a Saint Constantine who is usually said to have been a king who gave up his crown to become a monk . The Cornish and Welsh traditions especially may have been influenced by Gildas , in particular his adjuration for Constantine to repent ; the belief may have been that the reproach eventually worked.

The two major centers for the cultus of Saint Constantine were the church in Constantine Parish and the Chapel of Saint Constantine in St Merryn Parish , now Constantine Bay , both in Cornwall . The former was established by at least the 11th century, as it is mentioned in Rhygyfarch's 11th-century Life of Saint David . At this time it may have supported a clerical community , but in later centuries it was simply a parish church . The Chapel at Constantine Bay had a holy well , and was the center of its own sub-parish .The Annales Cambriae Welsh Annals) and the Annals of Ulster record the conversion of a certain Constantine; these may be a reference to the Cornish saint and therefore to the historical figure. Several subsequent religious texts refer to Constantine, generally associating him with Cornwall, often specifically as its king. The Life of Saint David says that Constantine, King of Cornwall, gave up his crown and joined Saint David's monastery at Menevia. The Vitae Petroci includes an episode in which Saint Petroc protects a stag being hunted by a wealthy man named Constantine, who eventually converts and becomes a monk. Here Constantine is not said to be king, but a 12th-century text referring to this story, the Miracula, specifically names him as such, further adding that upon his conversion he gave Petroc an ivory horn that became one of the saint's chief relics. A number of other traditions attested across Britain describe saints or kings named Constantine, suggesting a confusion and conflation of various figures.

Other sites in Southwestern Britain associated with figures named Constantine include the church of Milton Abbot, Devon; a chapel in nearby Dunterton, Devon; and a chapel in Illogan, Cornwall. The two Devon sites may have been dedicated instead to Constantine the Great, as local churches were subject to Tavistock Abbey, dedicated to Constantine the Great's mother Helena. In Wales, two churches were dedicated to Constantine : Llangystennin ( in Conwy ) and Welsh Bicknor (now inHerefordshire , England).The church in Govan , a parish in present-day Scotland, was also dedicated to a Saint Constantine.

Gweek

50.096°N 5.209°WGweek Village Hall

Gweek (Cornish :Gwig, meaning forest village) is a civil parish and village in Cornwall, England, United Kingdom. It is situated approximately three miles (5km) east of Helston. The civil parish was created from part of the parish of Constantine by boundary revision in 1986. The name Gweek is first recorded as Gwykin 1358 and is derived from the Cornish wordgwig, meaning "forest village", cognate with the Welsh gwig and Old Breton guic. Gweek village has a pub, the Black Swan, and a combined shop and post office. The village is also home to the Cornish Seal Sanctuary.

Gweek lies within the Cornwall Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB). Almost a third of Cornwall has AONB designation, with the same status and protection as a National Park.

Gweek is at the head of navigation of the Helford River. It has been a port since Roman times and thrived in the Tudor period, with its own Customs House. In the 13th century, the townspeople of Helston bought the rights to the port of Gweek.

During the mining boom, a tin-smelting blowing house operated at the quayside.

In Lewis's Topographical Dictionary of England published in 1848, the village was described as:

GWEEK, a small port, in the hundred of Kerrier, W. division of Cornwall, 3½ miles (E. by S.) from Helston. The pilchard-fishery is carried on extensively, 200 boats being employed in taking the fish, which are cured in the various creeks and coves within the limits of the port. In addition to the fishery, the chief trade consists in the exportation of copper-ore, corn, moorstone, and oysters, and the importation of timber, coal, and limestone.

In an August 1880 edition ofThe Cornishman newspaper, Gweek (along with Porthleven) was described as a prominent seaport, supplying coal, lime, timber, slate, etc to the neighbouring mines and inhabitants. Timber was unloaded from ships at Merthen Hole and floated up-river to Gweek on barges. The western wharf was owned by Mr Basset of Tehidy.

Musical activities

Gweek has a silver band which performs locally and provides music at some Anglican services in the Gweek Mission Church. The band also organises a yearly "band week". This starts with a concert of three local brass bands in a field overlooking the Helford River. Afterwards, there is a pig roast with stalls and entertainment and at the end of the week a clay pigeon shoot.

The Cornwall Fiddle Orchestra was formed in 2007 by fiddle player Hudson Swan. He was a member of Scottish band, The Tannahill Weavers but now lives in Cornwall and works as a violin teacher for the Cornwall Music Service. The orchestra rehearses weekly at Helston School.

Antiquities The Tolvan Holed Stone

The three-cornered Tolvan Holed Stone is an unusual megalith. It is about 800 metres north of Gweek behind Tolvan Cross Farm.

In literature

Gweek is featured inThe Meaning of Liff, a book by Douglas Adams andJohn Lloyd. A passage in Charles Kingsley's novel Hereward the Wake features Gweek and its neighbouring woods. Kingsley received some of his education at nearby Helston Grammar School.

References

The Helford River from Trebah garden

The Helford River (Cornish:Dowr Mahonyer) is aria(flooded river valley) in Cornwall, England, fed by small streams into its many creeks. There are seven creeks on the Helford; from west to east these are Ponsontuel Creek, Mawgan Creek, Polpenwith Creek, Polwheveral Creek, Frenchman's Creek, Port Navas Creek, and Gillan Creek. The best known of these is Frenchman's Creek, made famous by Daphne du Maurier in her novel of the same name. A little further up river is Tremayne Quay, built for a visit by Queen Victoria in the 1840s which she then declined to make, allegedly because it was raining.

Toponymy

William Hals (died 1737) in his unpublished History of Cornwallreferred to the estuary as ″Hayleford channel″ i.e.Hayle = estuary in Cornish and ford (English).

Industry and tourism

The river has long been an important industrial and agricultural marine highway serving local mines, farms and quarries as well as the local fishing industry. In 1882, Merthen Hole was the highest point at which the colliers unloaded and Bishop's Quay was the base for a dozen pilchard boats.Most of this industry has now gone, although commercial fishermen still use the river to land their catch. This activity amounts to about 1 million pounds sterling a year, and the oyster fishery is being revived. The industries have largely been replaced by tourist activities, in particular those relating to the sea, although at the head of the river the landscape is dominated by the extensive operations of Gweek Boatyard and the base of marine drilling and construction company Fugro Seacore, although the latter has moved its main base to Falmouth. These businesses now dominate the head of the river where once coal and timber were landed. On the opposite bank is the Cornish Seal Sanctuary, where injured seals are nursed back to health before being released to the freedom of the Atlantic Ocean. The traditional 'heavy' industries have been replaced by 'lighter' businesses catering for the many tourists who visit the area.

Wildlife and conservation

The area falls into a Special Area of Conservation(Fal and Helford),Site of Special Scientific Interest (Lower Fal & Helford Intertidal) and the Cornwall Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. The growth of eco andsustainable tourismhave seen the development of tourism by Helford River Expeditions focusing on the natural surroundings. The National Trust play an important role with their strategy.Natural England (formerly English Nature) contributes by protecting and monitoring the area. The river is unique in that it is not wholly managed by a specific port or river authority, but brings together major environmental groups and organisations interested in the protection and development of the river. These introduce and recommend safeguards, such as those put forward by Helford River Marine Conservation Group.

In April 2022, seventy Field Crickets (Gryllus campestris) from Spain were introduced to an organic field near Helford. It was last recorded in Cornwall in 1906. A follow-up survey in July 2023 estimated a population of 1000.^[5]

Villages, ferries and harbours White washed cottages on the bank of the Helford River

The main areas of settlement that adjoin the river are Gweek, Port Navas, Helford village, Helford Passage and Durgan. Gweek is larger than the others and has a larger permanent population, with more businesses, shops and a pub, The Gweek Inn. Helford village, on the south bank, has a shop/post office, Helford River Sailing Club and pub, The Shipwrights. Helford Passage, on the north bank, has a pub, The Ferryboat. Helford and Helford Passage are linked by a passenger (and pedal cycle) ferry which has existed for over 300 years.

Burgee of Helford River Sailing Club, established in 1948

Port Navas is home to the Duchy Oyster Farm and has at its focal point the Grade II listed Port Navas Quay. The quay, owned by the Duchy of Cornwall, has become degraded and damaged. A campaign group has been set up to protect and preserve Port Navas Quay and to reverse associated environmental damage in the Helford River Area; this is Preserve Port Navas Quay.

Following the death of Sir Richard Vyvyan, 8th Baronet of Trelowarren in 1879, his successor the 9th Baronet, Reverend, Sir Vyell Donnithorne Vyvyan exploited the woods on the estate. Aged oaks and ″firs″ between Gweek and Pont St Fual Lodges, and surplus wood from the rest of the estate was exported from Bishop's Quay  to the colleries of south Wales and the principal towns of Cornwall.

Definition of medieval

The adjective medieval literally means “of the Middle Ages,” i.e., the period between antiquity (the Roman world) and the early modern era 

Common chronological range

Historians most often treat the Middle Ages as roughly the 5th century to the 15th century: from the collapse of the Western Roman Empire (commonly dated 476) up to the Renaissance and early modern transitions around 1400–1500 

Standard subperiods and their usual dates

• Early Middle Ages: about 500–1000.
• High Middle Ages: about 1000–1300.
• Late Middle Ages: about 1300–1500.
  These are conventional labels; exact boundaries vary by region and by the historian’s focus 

What authors usually mean when they write “medieval”

• Broad cultural sense: the social, political, religious, and material world shaped by feudal institutions, Christendom, and post‑Roman societies in Europe between Late Antiquity and the Renaissance 
• In specialised works an author may narrow the term (for example, “medieval urban law” might mean 1100–1400), so check the author’s period definition in introductions or captions 

Origin and first use of the word

The English term derives from Latin medium aevum “middle age.” The modern English adjective (often spelled mediaeval earlier) was coined in the 19th century from that Latin phrase; recorded modern forms date from the early 1800s (commonly cited 1825 for the form medieval/mediaeval) 

Quick guidance for reading historical scripts

When you encounter “medieval” in a text, assume 5th–15th centuries unless the author states otherwise; for precise work always look for the author’s explicit chronological scope because usages and boundary years differ by topic and region 

Bronze Age time boundaries overview

The Bronze Age is a cultural-technical phase defined by the pervasive use of bronze (an alloy of copper with tin or arsenic), alongside associated changes in technology, trade, burial practice, and social organisation. Its absolute dates vary widely by region because metallurgy and associated cultural changes spread at different times. Below are commonly used regional ranges and practical guidance for tagging or labelling gazetteer entries.

Common regional date ranges

• Near East and Anatolia
  Early Bronze Age: c. 3300–2100 BCE; Middle Bronze Age: c. 2100–1600 BCE; Late Bronze Age: c. 1600–1200 BCE.
• Aegean (Greece and Cyclades)
  Early Bronze Age: c. 3000–2000 BCE; Middle Bronze Age: c. 2000–1600 BCE; Late Bronze Age: c. 1600–1100 BCE.
• Central and Western Europe
  Broad Bronze Age: c. 2300–800 BCE; subdivided (Early/Middle/Late) roughly as Early c. 2300–1500 BCE, Middle c. 1500–1200 BCE, Late c. 1200–800 BCE.
• British Isles (including Devon and Cornwall)
  Broad Bronze Age: c. 2500–800 BCE; Early Bronze Age often starts c. 2500–2000 BCE (after Late Neolithic/Beaker horizons), Late Bronze Age ends c. 800 BCE.
• South Asia (Indian subcontinent)
  Indus-related Bronze Age/Harappan: c. 3300–1300 BCE (mature Harappan c. 2600–1900 BCE); local Bronze-using traditions continue and overlap with early Iron use.
• East Asia
  Bronze Age in China: roughly c. 2000–771 BCE (Xia-Shang-Zhou sequences; Shang c. 1600–1046 BCE is strongly bronze-rich).
• The Americas and parts of Sub-Saharan Africa
  No true widespread Bronze Age phase comparable to Old World sequences; metallurgy often appears much later and in different forms.

Practical guidance for mapping and gazetteer work

• Use region-specific ranges rather than a single global boundary.
• For ambiguous or single-site reports, prefer relative labels: Early Bronze Age, Middle Bronze Age, Late Bronze Age, or Bronze Age (broad)with a numeric range (e.g., Bronze Age c. 2500–800 BCE).
• Where chronology is uncertain, record both: cultural label(Bronze Age) and confidence/precision(e.g., high if radiocarbon dated; low if typological only).
• Include key local markers in metadata: metallurgy present; Beaker/urnfield/bronze-ritual features; radiocarbon dates range; typology links.
• Allow fields for overlapping phases (e.g., “Late Neolithic / Early Bronze Age transitional”) and for caveats like reuse or later disturbance.

Why ranges differ and how to communicate that

• Start and end dates depend on: first local alloy production; availability of tin or copper sources and trade; cultural adoption of bronze technologies; and the arrival of ironworking.
• Use wording that communicates variability: “Bronze Age (regional: c. 2500–800 BCE)”or “Bronze Age — British Isles convention: c. 2500–800 BCE”.
• When precision matters, attach dating evidence: radiocarbon ranges, stratigraphic context, or diagnostic artefact types.

Short recommended labels for database fields

• Period label: Bronze Age
• Region qualifier: e.g., British Isles
• Numeric range: e.g., c. 2500–800 BCE
• Subdivision: Early / Middle / Late (if known)
• Dating confidence: High / Medium / Low
• Dating evidence: Radiocarbon; typology; stratigraphy; historical reference

The suffix ‘ton’ constitutes a sort of test word,” says Mr. Isaac Taylor, “ by which we are able to discriminate the Anglo-Saxon settlements.”1 “A tun or ‘ton ’ was a place
surrounded by a hedge, or rudely fortified by a palisade”

The passage you quoted is part of the author’s argument that Plympton’s name is unmistakably Anglo‑Saxon, and that the key to recognising this lies in the suffix ‑ton. The PDF you have open confirms this discussion in its treatment of early Plympton history .

🏰 What ‑tonActually Signifies

The core point is that ‑ton(Old English tūn) originally meant:

• An enclosed place— literally a fenced or hedged area

• A defended homestead or settlement— often with a palisade

• A farmstead that could grow into a village or manor

So when you see a place‑name ending in ‑ton, you are almost always looking at:

• A Saxon foundation, or

• A Saxon renamingof an older site they took over.

This is why Isaac Taylor calls it a “test word”: it reliably marks Anglo‑Saxon occupation or administrative control.