Brass and Bronze.

So much similarity is observable in the modes of working in the different combinations of copper with other metals, that the same description will apply pretty accurately to all of them.

 In brass founding and working, for instance, the making of the moulds, the melting of the metal in furnaces, the casting and subsequent trimming and finishing, the rolling into sheets,  the drawing into wire— all are conducted pretty nearly in the same way as for other metals. The making of the brass itself is, however, rather a delicate operation.

This metal consists of about two parts of copper to one of zinc; the proportion not being exactly equal in all specimens. In the first place the copper is melted, and poured into cold w ater, by which it is made to separate into small pieces varying from the size of a small shot to that of a bean, and known as “ shot-copper.” The zinc is produced from a carbonate of the metal, called “ calamine;” this is broken into small pieces, heated to redness in a furnace, reduced to a fine powder, and wrashed. Any quantity of the powdered calamine is then mixed with three-fourths of its weight of “ shotcopper,” and an amount of charcoal equal in bulk to both. The mixture is exposed to a strong heat in earthen crucibles for several hours; at the end of which time the two kinds of metal have combined

together in a liquid state, and the charcoal has disappeared. The brass, formed by the union of the two metals, is poured either into large fiat granite moulds, or into smaller moulds of cast-iron, according as it is to be afterwards rolled into sheets or cast into small articles. Sometimes brass is made by the direct union of zinc

and copper; but this is a more difficult process than

when calamine is employed instead of metallic zinc.

Bronze, like bell-metal, is a mixture of copper and

 tin, but the proportions depend partly on the purposes to wffiich it is to be applied, and partly on the

opinions of the maker or artist. Bronze is a term frequently applied to the metal used for cannon, as wrell

as for statues ; and under this designation the French

founders are said to employ, for cannon, a ratio of

100 copper to 11 tin. Cymbals contain 78 copper to

1 22 tin ; medals, 100 copper to about 10 tin ; statues

; (on Mr. Westmacott’s plan), gun-metal, with 30 per

I cent, of pure copper added to it.

The mode of proceeding in casting a bronze statue is

much the same in principle as that of casting large bells,

but with greater precautions in every part of the operation. The making of the original model belongs to

| the highest department of art; for it is here that the

; sculptor show's his consummate skill, by imparting to

! the lifeless clay almost a living expression : all beyond

this, although requiring a very high degree of care, is

still mechanical, and governed by mechanical rules.

annoyance and disappointment. A t length his labours

seemed to be nearly at an end ; his mould wras lowered

into the pit, the furnace heated, and the metal thrown

in. A t this time, while a violent storm raged

without, the roof of his study, as if to increase the

confusion, caught fire; but, though ill and harassed,

lie.still directed the wrorks and encouraged his assistants, till overcome by anxiety and fatigue he retired

in a raging fever to lie down, leaving instructions

respecting the opening of the mouth of the furnace

and the running of the bronze. He had not, he

says, been reposing very long before one came

running to him to announce evil tidings : the metal

was melted, but would not run. H e jumped from

his bed, rushed to his studio like a madman, and

threatened the lives of his assistants, who, being

frightened, got out of his way, till one of them, to

appease him, desired him to give his orders, and they

wrould obey him at all risks. He commanded fresh

fuel to be throwm into the furnace; and presently, to

his satisfaction, the metal began to boil. Again, how7-

ever, it appeared thick and sluggish, and refused to

run. He then ordered all the plates, dishes, and

other articles of domestic use in his house to be brought

to him, which he threw pell-mell on the metal; wrhen

it immediately became fluid, and the mould wras $pon

filled. Fie adds that he fell down on his knees, and

poured forth a fervent thanksgiving to Almighty

  

                              Boudicca   bodecia

                                                                                 Iceni

                  Boudicca (died 61) ruled over a small tribe of Celt who challenged the colonization plans of the   Roman Empire in England.

                                         The insurrection she lead almost succeeded in turning back the Roman colonizers.Very little historical evidence survives about the queen named Boudicca,

                                                                                                         ruler of a small tribe of Celtic peoples known as the Iceni during the first century C.E. The Iceni made their home near what is now Norfolk, England,

and it is known that Boudicca inherited her crown upon the death of her husband. Not long afterward, she was integral in forming a pan-tribal alliance of Celtic warriors who carried      through a decisive, bloody, and very nearly successful uprising against their despised Roman colonizers in C.E. 61. The revolt that bears Boudicca's name would be remembered in history as one of the most significant insurrections against the mighty Roman Empire during Europe's classical era.

The Iceni and Pre-Roman Britain

Boudicca, whose name is sometimes spelled Boadicea, may or may not have been of direct Icenian heritage; it is only known that she was married to the Iceni king, Prasutagus, and among royal Celtic houses marital alliances with other tribes were not unusual. Knowledge of Boudicca survives from the writings of two historians of the Roman empire, Tacitus and Cassius Dio. The latter penned his impression of the Iceni queen: Boudicca, wrote Dio as quoted in The Rebellion of Boudicca, "was huge of frame, terrifying of aspect, and with a harsh voice. A great mass of bright red hair fell to her knees: she wore a great twisted golden necklace, and a tunic of many colours, over which was a thick mantle, fastened by a brooch."

The Iceni held the territory in what is present-day Norfolk, England, and historians assume they migrated at one point in the late Bronze Age from the European continent. In England they established a farming economy, were weavers of cloth and also made pottery. Their stability was threatened by the arrival of the Belgae from Gaul (France). The Belgae had earned the enmity of the Roman emperor Caesar for providing help to their brethren back in Gaul who were resisting Caesar and Roman rule there. For this, Caesar began attacking Britain around 55 B.C.E.

Matters were further complicated by the superiority of the Belgae over their Celtic neighbors, such as the Iceni. The Belgae were skilled ironsmiths, more adept at farming, and most importantly, possessed a well-organized military force. They soon began taking over other tribes in the area. The Iceni built forts against them, but when the Romans launched a massive military invasion of the British Isles in C.E. 43, the Belgae capitulated. In total, eleven kings of varying Celtic tribes surrendered in a formal signing. The Arch of Claudius in Rome commemorates this historic surrender. Two kings, however, had engineered agreements with the Romans early on in exchange for retaining some power over their tribes. These rulers were Cogidubnus of the Regni tribe and Prasutagus, Boudicca's husband.

The Roman Empire in Britain

Over the next few years, Romans established a strong military presence in Britain, as they did elsewhere in Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East. Roman colonization meant financial hardship for the conquered peoples. Their economy was immediately forced to gear itself toward the production of food for the massive legions of Roman soldiers stationed in their lands. Also, Roman officials imposed heavy taxes for an array of services and goods, and Roman moneylenders arrived in Britain to take advantage of the situation by making loans. Britain's Rome-appointed governor, Suetonius Paulinus, was also dedicated to eradicating Druidism, the native Celt religion. Its priests retained a great deal of influence over both common Celts and royal lines.

The origins of Boudicca's revolt began when the despised Procurator Catus Decianus rescinded the terms of a financial agreement between the Emperor Claudius and Prasutagus. It had been called a grant, but then was renamed a loan. In response, Prasutagus left a stipend of half his kingdom in his will to Nero, Claudius's successor, to satisfy the debt. Roman officials under Catus Decianus arrived in Iceni lands and instead took the whole. Boudicca, who had inherited the kingdom since she and Prasutagus had no male heirs, was arrested and beaten, and her two daughters raped. The estates of wealthy Iceni were liquidated, and lesser relatives of the royal house sold into Roman slavery

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