Glastonbury Abbey

from Interior Arcade saint Mary’s Chapel

THERE is no religious foundation in England whose history carries us so far back as that of Glastonbury. Its origins really are lost in the mists of antiquity. True, in later times people became very precise about them, but when we come to test their assertions these melt away under the touch. It is impossible here to write down all the mythical history that gathered about the place. I will try to set down what is not seriously disputed, then notice some of the more famous of the legends.

Long before the Saxons (the English) came to this country—far back in the days of British princelings—some Christian missionaries built a little church of wattles in the district called Avalon. Whether that was in the second or third century or later, there is no way of telling. Not unnaturally the date was eventually put back to the first century. The church was old in the time of St. Paulinus, Archbishop of York—that is, in the early years of the seventh century—and he cased it over with wood and lead. From the first year of the same century 601 purports to come a grant made by a King of Damnonia, the same word as Devon of the land called Ynyswitrin to the “ old church,” and an abbot, Worgret, is the head of the community. A hundred years later , 700 or so,  King Ina gives a charter and builds what was then considered a great church, to the east of the old one. By this time we are well into the Saxon period, and you must note that there has been no word of devastation of the place by heathen Saxons. They were Christianised before they took over this part of the country. Thus Glastonbury passed intact from British to English hands. It is the only foundation which did so. That the history of the earlier centuries should be filled in a little was natural . Saint Patrick and Saint Benignus, his disciple, are credited with having sojourned here in the fifth century ; nay, the bodies of both were said to lie here . Saint Bridget came, and lived at Beokery, Little Ireland, another islet in the marsh. And in the sixth century Saint David i e 546 came and built an addition to the Old Church at the eastern end. The dimensions of the addition were very precisely set down by the chroniclers of the Abbey. Gildas, the historian, too, died and was buried here in 512. Of these Statements, and there are more like them,  the most credible is that about Saint David. But all of these represent a truth, that Glastonbury was so sacred a resort in those centuries that the great lights of the Celtic Church would be likely visitors to it. If traditions of this class are not fairly to be called fabulous, some, which crystallised later, are of that description. William of Malmesbury, who saw the charter, says the king’s name was illegible, but I have seen it in Mr. Bligh Bond’s book given as Gwrgan.

GLASTONBURY ABBEY

Glastonbury Abbey was founded on an eminence above the meres by King Ine about the year 700. Legend . tells that its history goes back yet further , that Joseph of Arimathea landed at Glastonbury bringing the Holy Grail with him, that he had been sent out by Saint Philip, Christ’s disciple, to evangelize Britain, and that he built an oratory of wattle and sand, the venerable vetusta ecclesia. Legend also identifies Glastonbury with Avalon and makes it the burial place of King Arthur. With these traditions Glastonbury can in fairness be called the most famous of Britain’s monasteries. Saint Dunstan was a monk here, and then abbot. He is said to have repaired the buildings which had been damaged by the Danes. King Edgar made generous gifts towards Dunstan’s new works and was, when he died in 975, buried in the abbey. After the Conquest a large scheme of rebuilding was set afoot , and probably completed by about 1120 or earlier. All this was burnt in the disastrous fire of 1184. Immediately after a new vetusta ecclesia and a new abbey church were begun in axis with each other and carried on simultaneously, the former, Saint Mary’s Chapel, so rapidly that it could be consecrated in 1186, the latter more slowly. The style was at the outset a Late Norman Transitional but seems to have changed at once into a well understood Early Gothic -probably under the influence of the designs of the great architect who began Wells Cathedral about 1180. Work in the church went on into the middle of the C13 and beyond. Under Abbot Fromond 1303-22 the crossing tower was completed and the E part of the nave vaulted. Under Abbot de Sodbury 1323-34 the nave vault was completed, under Abbot Walter de Monington 1342-74 the choir lengthened and refaced and a retrochoir added, and finally under. Abbots Richard Bere 1493-1524 and Richard Whiting 1524-39 an E chapel for the remains of King Edgar erected. The whole church from the Edgar Chapel to St Mary’s Chapel was in the end c. 580 ft long nave, chancel, and retrochoir c. 375 . The plan of the church will be described later, but a word must here be said of the church of King Ine and of St Dunstan, i.e. of c, 700 and c. 950, of which excavations of 1928, etc., have revealed much.

The results have to be read;

they were unfortunately not left exposed. King Ine’s church had an oblong nave c. 42 ft long with the usual portions instead of aisles and with a chancel arch c. 14 ft wide. The form of the chancel is unknown. It was replaced by a square chancel in the c 8 or C9, when also further portions were built to the 1. and r. of the w end and perhaps a narthex or atrium. St Dunstan extended the chancel yet further (21 by 17 ft) and added two more porticus to the 1. and r. of his chancel. The chancel may have carried a tower. The building according to the excavations must have been a group of loosely connected square and oblong chambers and cannot have possessed much architectural unity. The surviving buildings are described in the following order: St Mary’s Chapel, Abbey Church, Monastic Buildings. They were all built of Doulting stone.

Saint Mary ’s Chapel .

Begun in 1184 and dedicated in 1186. A plain oblong, four bays long, with pronounced angle turrets -an early forerunner of Late Medieval Royal chapels. With its decorative motifs and the relation of them to plain wall it is a Norman building Secular Architecture:South Petherton, King Ine’s Palace bay-window On the ground floor outside tall intersecting arches, on the upper floor big round-arched windows. arranged at the w end in a generously spaced group of three.The ornament on both levels is typically Latest Norman, that is zigzags and similar motifs crenellations with triangular merlons, etc. placed not parallel with the wall nor indeed at right angles to it, but at an angle of 45 degrees. The angle turrets also have intersecting arches. Before beginning to watch for certain details which tend to disturb the so far simple evidence, a look at the roofless interior is to be recommended. Here also are intersecting arches, but they are enriched by medallions or paterae of foliage, and the foliage is of the Early Gothic stiffleaf variety.

The zigzag, lozenges, etc., however, remain what they are outside.

But, and this is the essential point, the chapel was vaulted, and the vaults are fully-understood Gothic.

Not only were they rib-vaults -there are after all plenty of Norman rib-vaults including some in Somerset parish churches, and including also the new building which was stylistically the most important for Glastonbury, the w end of Worcester Cathedral of c. 1175-80 -but they were consistently pointed as shown by the surviving pointed wall-arches or dosserets.

The transverse arches again have rich zigzag motifs set transversely.

Now to support these vaults the outside was given buttresses up to the height of their springing, and they are shafted in the angles with keeled shafts and have clearly crocket-capitals, that is the capitals of the French Gothic style of exactly that moment.

Thus Norman tradition and Gothic requisites of structure, and also Norman ornament and French Gothic ornament, stand side by side -kept so neatly separate that one is tempted to assume two masters, one who planned the Late Norman chapel, and a second who replaced him almost at once and rushed to apply the new Gothic methods and idiom as far as could still be done.

The gabled N and .s doorways would, in the opinion of most scholars, form part of this story; for they exhibit the same odd combination.

The general disposition is entirely in the Anglo-Norman and more specifically in West-Country traditions. Malmesbury of c. 1165 in particular ought to be compared.

There also figures are small and set in foliage trails and roundels, and no break by 9b capitals or abaci is made between jambs and arches.

The style of sculpture at Glastonbury on the other hand is not entirely Anglo-Norman.

The wedge-stones or voussoirs show details entirely Gothic, entirely French and hardly possible before c. 1230, that is the beginning of the w front at Wells.

What happened then? On the side the medallions were never completed. Only two are recognizable, the creation of Eve , and the Fall.

Could they not on the N side have been finished later than any of the other work? On the N side there are in the inner order of wedge-stones the Annmiciation, Visitation, Nativity, and the Magi with Herod.

In the next order the Magi (kneeling) can again be recognized, then the Magi asleep in their beds, and then the Massacre, with Herod on his throne and his soldiers in exact armour of the period. But there is also a woman milking a cow.

As antecedents for Glastonbury, Malmesbury and Worcester have been mentioned; and they seem indeed the immediate premisses, always subject of course to the possibility of others having been destroyed.

Malmesbury in the sixties has pointed arches in a Norman setting, Worcester in the seventies a combination of pointed and round, and in addition keeled shafts and zigzag at r. angles to the wall, just like Glastonbury, and moreover at Worcester the aisles are rib-vaulted, and the decorative motif of paterae occurs consistently.*

The Abbey C h u r c h was begun in the same year as St Mary’s Chapel, ie in 1184. How fast building proceeded, we do not know.

There is no early dedication recorded, and not enough remains to arrive at safe conclusions.

The plan of the whole church is laid out in the grass, easy to understand. St Mary’s Chapel is continued to the E in a galilee of the same width, a width slightly less than that of the nave of the church. The nave is accompanied by aisles and has nine bays.

On the s side was the cloister, on the N side a big porch of an internal depth equal to that of two bays of the nave. Crossing and transepts with E aisles and two E chapels to each transept.

Aisled choir of five bays and straight-ended aisled retrochoir of two bays, and then the aisleless Edgar Chapel of 87 ft length.

What survives, apart from the plan, is something of the outer walls of the c 14 retrochoir and the late c 12 chancel aisles, a large and tall fragment of the E crossing piers and adjoining transept walls, a three-bay stretch of outer wall of the s aisle, a substantial portion of the w front, and the outer walls of the galilee.

The late C 12 c h a n c e l has the same mixture of Norman and Gothic as St Mary’s Chapel, though the proportion between the two is now reversed.

There are still the old zigzags,

* For the Crypt underneath St Mary’s Chapel,

but the capitals are crocheted, and the arches are pointed with a purpose. The shafted windows also are pointed.

The aisle vaults rested on triple wall-shafts as at the w end of Worcester circa 1175-80, and the ribs had a similar profile too.

The retrochoir was added by Abbot Monington (1342-74), but he seems to have preserved the same composition at least for the aisles -see the wall shafts, though their bases give away the later date.

Abbot Monington also vaulted or re-vaulted at a higher level ? the chancel itself, and of the way in which he proceeded the blank panelling just E of the n e crossing pier is evidence .

There remain five tiers of small blank-arched singlelight panels.

So one has to assume an arrangement based on that of the Gloucester choir, whereby the new style was put as a veneer on the late C12 or early C13 walls, and the new higher and probably wider clerestory windows were made part of that grid.

As an early case of the Perp style in Somerset this choir must be remembered .

The Edgar Chapel was an oblong, built by Abbot Bere and enriched by an apse on the pattern of Henry 7,s Chapel at Westminster ? by Abbot Whiting immediately after.

The transept E side is most helpful in reconstructing the original appearance of the upper parts of the church of 1184,etc. The elevation consists of arcade, triforium, and wall

passage in front of the clerestory windows. The piers of the arcade consist of a large number of shafts grouped towards the transept cnave’ so as to carry with a central triple shaft

the transverse arch and the ribs of the high vaults, with further shafts for the moulded arcade arches, and with

one shaft between these two groups to carry a wall-arch taller than the arcade and lower than the high vault. This wall-arch frames arcade and triforium together -a peculiarity of some

earlier c 12 churches in England and Scotland of which Jedburgh and Oxford are the most familiar examples, whereas

Tewkesbury and Romsey are the examples nearest to Glastonbury. The arcade arches still have zigzag decoration. So have the arcade-cum-triforium arches. The small arches of

the grouped triforium -three to each bay -are trefoiled and not pointed. In the spandrels above lozenge-shaped paterae. The clerestory windows are shafted (shafts with three shaftrings) and flanked by smaller pointed arches with two orders of shafts (also with shaft-rings). Square paterae above these arches. 

* Height of the chancel c. 90 ft.

 further west than the cloister ranges, south west of Saint Marys Chapel

They are a fragment of the alm onry with part of a fine rib-vault and the complete abbot ’ s kitchen , one of the best preserved medieval kitchens in Europe (for England cf. Durham and Chichester). The date of its erection is not known. The second half of the C14 seems most likely. The

kitchen is square in plan but with fireplaces fitting the four corners so as to result in an octagonal interior. Octagonal truncated pyramid roof with tall lantern, crowned by a

further truncated pyramid roof with a yet smaller lantern and a tiny octagonal pyramid top. The external square is heavily enforced by curved buttresses. The windows are Dec,

of two lights, and simple in design. The fireplaces are arched, and the arches slightly chamfered. In the kitchen the Abbey museum , with many architectural fragments, a large number

of tiles and a m onum ent of the early c 13 to an Abbot (William Vigor f 1223?). Above the head a cinque foiled gablette.

gatehouse. The Abbey Gatehouse faces Market Street.

There are two entrances, one for vehicles and one for pedestrians. Depressed two-centred arches, double-chamfered without capitals. Above the pedestrians’ entrance is a two-light

window, and this is repeated symmetrically further 1. Where the Porter’s House is attached to the Gatehouse. This is of two storeys and has a big canted central bay-window with

battlements. The front is of six lights, the canted sides of two each.

barn. Close to the se comer of the walled Abbey area. It

is of stone and has a length of three bays plus porch plus two bays. The arms of Abbot Bere date it as c. 1500 or a little later.

The porch arch is four-centred and double-chamfered and has no capitals to rest on. On the short sides one window each in

the gable which is in the shape of an arch head filled with three cusped spheric triangles. Interior with collar-beam roof.

St J o h n . A c 15 church. With few hardly noticeable exceptions built after the collapse in 1403 of the Norman crossing tower.

Its tall w tower with its lively crown announces the approaching town and has been alone in announcing it since the towers

of the abbey have disappeared. The tower is the second tallest of any Somerset parish church (134-2-ft high). It deserves

close study from near to. It has set-back buttresses with a first set of shafts carrying pinnacles above the ground-stage,

The nave continued this system, but from fragments found it is certain that, when the triforium stage was reached, the c 13 was over (ball-flower decoration in the triforium arches). All that remains in situ is the outer s aisle wall, and here the C13 design was kept for five bays. Then there is clearly a break in the treatment of the vaulting springers, and it is assumed that it marks the period ofAbbot de Sodbury, i.e. the second quarter of the c 14. The outer wall as preserved has windows, round-headed inside but pointed outside. The w wall of the nave has, to the 1. and r. of the w portal, trefoiled recesses of the same kind as in the transept triforium. The west portal is not high. It is covered by a depressed pointed arch of English

c 13 type. Above this towards the w is a tympanum, and doorway and tympanum are framed by a stately, finely moulded arch on four orders of shafts. The tympanum is decorated

by blank stepped arcading with foiled or cusped heads. The centre arch is trefoiled, those to the 1. and r. have two rising

foils or lobes each.

The west portal faces into the galilee . This has tall trefoiled blank arcading inside (shafts with shaft-rings), an elegant norman doorway with segmental head inside and two orders of shafts

outside, and upper windows re-made probably in the C15.

At about the same time a crypt was built beneath the galilee

and then also beneath St Mary’s Chapel. The details of the

latter are clearly Perp, but those of the former are equally

clearly of the C13. To realize this it is only necessary to examine rib profiles and wall-shaft profiles. The explanation

of re-used materials is not wholly convincing. The vault under

the galilee consists of oblong bays with a longitudinal ridgrib and a short transverse ridge-rib against the ends of which

run the diagonal ribs which rise from the four corners. Monastic Buildings . The cloister was about 135 by 135 ft. On its e side was the oblong chapter house , on its

s side the refectory with an undercroft with a row of central supports. O f the w side little remains, s of the w end of the

Refectory was the detached square m onk s * kitchen with

two curved projections at the sw and se angles and four

central supports. The E range was continued to the s beyond the s wall of the Refectory by the dormitory range, also with an undercroft with middle supports. The undercroft was subdivided into three rooms, s of the Dormitory are the visible remains of the drains of the RERE-DORTER or lavatories.

But the most considerable remains of the monastic quarters

and a second at the bell-stage. The w doorway is uncommonly

large, has tracery in the spandrels, big leaf sprays in one hollow

of jambs and arch, and a niche to the 1. and one to the r. There

follows a six-light w window again with two niches, and then

the display on the N and s sides starts also. Up the centres of

the s and N sides and up from the apex of the w window rise

triangular shafts ending in the intermediate pinnacles of the

crown. The next stage and the bell-stage are one composition,

both very tall. The lower stage of the two is covered with twin

two-light panelling with two transoms, and the vertical lines

o f this are then taken up at the bell-stage by two four-light

bell-openings with two transoms. On top of this stands the

crown. Battlements pierced by arcading in two tiers. Big

square angle pinnacles with crockets, accompanied by junior

pinnacles and in addition by one which stands free of the

corner corbelled out on a gargoyle. It is these projecting shafts

and pinnacles which tend to make the crown look exuberantly

top-heavy. The intermediate pinnacles on the middles of the

sides whose source has been traced down to lower stages are

also accompanied by junior pinnacles.

The s side of the church is all embattled, with pinnacles on the porch and the transept. The porch is two-storeyed with

niches and a lierne-vault. The lower storey dates from 1428,

the upper from shortly before 1498. The transept has a fourlight window to the s, a five-light window to the E. The s chapel, to distinguish it specially, has five-light windows on

s and E. Then follows the short chancel with its seven-light E

window. The tracery below the transom is curious and capricious. It has no exact parallel anywhere. The chancel has

some traces of the building preceding the present. They have

been uncovered both outside and inside. But the chancel arch

belongs in its date to the chapel arches and the aisle arcades, i.e. the C15. The nave appears tall with its clerestory -Tightsome’ is the word used by Leland for it. The arcade is of

seven bays and piers of standard section, with four hollows,

the four little round capitals of the shafts sparingly decorated

with rosettes. Between the clerestory windows on angel-busts stand shafts which carry the Somerset roof of c. 1495-1500, a specimen not particularly ornate. The arches into the chancel chapels are lower and four-centred. The arches into the

transepts with their plainer mouldings could be pre-1403.

T h e transepts certainly existed then; for not only does the existence of a Norman crossing tower make the exist­ door). -sculpture . Small Italian C15 marble relief of the

Nativity (s aisle). Bought in Sicily. -Small ivory Crucifixus, Italian?, Baroque, -pain t in g . On the altar of the s transept.

Christ Crucified, with the Virgin, St John, and Ecclesia and

Synagogue, German (?), late c 15. Early in the C20 the picture

was in the church of Pepinster near Liege, -stained glass .

Chancel N, a good collection of C15 glass, put together so as

to give the impression of a complete window. The kneeling

figures at the foot specially handsome. -Chancel s, rather

more a patchwork of original glass. -vestments . Pall of

Abbot Whiting, with Assumpton and floral sprays. It must: have been a fine piece of embroidery originally. -Gremial (Apron) of Abbot Whiting, with an extremely pretty spray of Tudor roses. -plate . Elizabethan Chalice by Ions of Exeter;

Salver by John Bignell 1725; Salver and Flagon by Gurney &' Co. 1744. -MONUMENTS. In the chancel N and s Richard Atwell f 1476 and Jane Atwell f 1485. He was a wealthy cloth merchant and no doubt helped to pay for the church. Two similar tomb-chests. The brass effigies are lost. Against both

tomb-chests small figures between the usual panels with shields. -John Camell, c. 1470 (s transept). Alabaster effigy.

Against the tomb-chest angels and camels. -Tomb-chest (n

transept), large and with open lid. Quatrefoils with shields on the sides. Saint Benedict . The church was rebuilt by Abbot Bere c. 1520. His initials are over the N porch and on a roof-corbel in the n

aisle, w tower with set-back buttresses, tall two-light bellopenings with transom and Somerset tracery, a shaft ending in

a pinnacle between them, battlements and big square pinnacles accompanied by pinnacles which continue long shafts standing on the buttresses. The interior has the tower arch panelled between thin shafts. Arcade of four bays with the

MEARE AND GODNEY

The village of Meare is about four miles South of Wedmore, and reached by a road across the “Moors”. It is on the South West border of Meare Pool, to which Camden assigns an area of 500 acres, and Leland an average circumference of 3 miles. The place has three buildings of much interest—church, manor-house, and abbot’s fish-house.

But apart from these, the renown of Meare has been spread far during recent years as the result of the thrilling excavation of Celtic lake-dwellings by Dr Bulleid of Glastonbury and his helpers. The site, now famous in Europe, must be an object of legitimate curiosity, but it is hard to find. In the village, a road W. of the church and running S., is marked “Meare Way” on a signpost. Turn down this for 100 yards or so along the level. On the “Moor side” is the stump of a notice board nearly opposite a red-ochred cottage. About 50 yards back in the marsh is a hut standing on a big mound in the angle between two ditches. Other mounds whose tops are about 3 feet above the general level, are on the West side of the ditch.

There are two distinct groups of dwellings separated by about 150 yards of level ground, and each group comprised about 50 huts: the combined groups occupy parts of about seven fields. These little artificial islands were made well over two thousand years ago some 200 yards from the shore of the Meare lake. Within recent years Great Britain, through Dr Arthur Bulleid, has made a remarkable contribution to the lore of lake-dwellings known in the world, though those of Meare are comparatively late, having been occupied during the prehistoric (early) iron age. The dwellings were built on artificial mounds made in shallow water near the lake shore with trunks of trees, brushwood, earth, and stone, the little islands being connected with the mainland by a raised causeway. Dr Bulleid discovered the Glastonbury (or Godney) site in 1892, and excavation followed from 1892-98, and from 1904-07, with the skilled assistance of Mr H. St George Gray, the well-known excavator and curator of Taunton Museum.

Then the village at Meare was discovered in 1895, and systematic investigation followed in 1908, 1911-14, and 1921 and following years. The quest is still proceeding. The Glastonbury site is on the Brue levels something more than a mile N. of Glastonbury on the way to the village of Godney. The site is triangular and covers about j I acres. It comprises some 80-90 hemispherical mounds, with diameters ranging from 15 to 40 feet, each being the site of a dwelling. In each case on the underlying peat was laid a platform, of wood and this was bordered by a palisading of posts. On the wood was laid a floor of clay, and as in time this sank, a new one would be superimposed—a process repeated several times. A house was built of upright posts and walls of wattle and daub; a thatched roof was supported by a central post; and on the floor a clay hearth was set, of an average diameter of about 4 feet. The causeway was of clay rammed tight, to a depth of about feet on top of timbers. The occupation of these settlements was evidently continuous during the third and second centuries B.C., and certainly came to an end before or very soon after the civilization of Rome reached so far west as Somerset. The culture of the inhabitants is thoroughly shown by the objects to be seen in the museum. They include objects of bronze, tin, lead, and iron— a bronze bowl set round with bosses is the piece de resistance—of amber, glass, jet, and bone. The pottery is of the type we associate with the pre-Roman Celts, especially vessels with ornament of cordons round the shoulder. The human remains show that the people were of oval-headed Iberian type, men and women of shorter stature and slighter build than the long-heads (dolicho-cephalic). Their pottery and woodwork is that of late-Celtic art, just such as has been found at Wookey Hole, Ham Hill, and Worlebury Camp in Somerset, and on Mount Caburn and in other sites in Sussex and elsewhere. Here then stood the island dwellings of Celts who ploughed, spun and wove in the second and first centuries before Christ, and vanished when the Romans came. Whither? Possibly to some extent into the more inaccessible caves of Mendip, though some would seem to have simply transferred to the shores of their lakes. For, truly, these moor folk whom you may see between April and July cutting and stacking peat to dry on the marshes, might well be their descendants. They are an individual and somewhat retrograde race. Few have been off the moor, and those few very rarely. (The Godney site is, as was said above, about ij miles from Glastonbury, on the right-hand side of the road, where the words “British Village” are marked very faintly on a white gate-post.)

(Read The Lake-villages of Somerset, by Arthur Bulleid, L.R.C.P., F.S.A. Price 2s., Folk Press, London, S.W.)

But Meare has yet other things to show. The abbots of Glastonbury used to own the lake and exploit its fish. Here they were en compagne, and no doubt the Manor House (immediately E. of the church, i.e. on the Glastonbury side) was a “week-end” establishment. The striking features outside are the tall porch with a curved gable and a crude figure a-top, and the three buttresses on the E. side of the front. There is a dining hall 60 feet long on the first floor, with fireplace and windows. This house seems to have been built in the time of Adam de Sodbury (1322-35). The Fish House (1335) is next (E.) to the Manor House and on the edge of the old mere, and is now under the care of the Office of Works, and has been re-roofed since a fire destroyed the original timber roof some years back. When built, it contained a ground floor and storey, the latter reached by outside steps, the former being in two halves with communication by two pointed doorways. The living room was upstairs, the fishing tackle below. The church has a chancel of the fourteenth century, and nave, aisles, and a stone pulpit of the fifteenth. On the charming parapet of the S. aisle is the monogram of Abbot Selwood, last-but-one abbot of Glastonbury. The tracery of the E. window is uncommon.

While near Meare I had an opportunity of seeing something of the peat industry. Three strong young fellows were down in a trench six-foot deep, the sides of which were cut as straight as a brick wall. About 31 feet down began, perfectly level and perfectly distinct, the stratum which it is worth digging. All the loose top-soil has to be cleared off, and then the desirable seam is cut out from above into 6-inch cubes, and left out to dry till fit for carting, when they are sold by the thousand.

By miles of ditch-guarded roads, shaded by long rows of pollard willows—roads which, by a not unpleasant change, you have all to yourself—you come to Glastonbury.

GLASTONBURY (716 Glestingaburg. D.,

Glasting-berie: Glessenbyri {Leiand); the fort of the Glas tings).—

The ground on which rises Glastonbury Tor and on which the township and abbey of Glastonbury were built, was called in ancient days the Isle of Avalon. To realize its insular character it is necessary to go up the Tor or some of the neighbouring high places; but a glance at the map is far more satisfactory. Roughly, a great arm of the sea came in from the Bristol Channel between Mendip and Quantock, and Standing proudly on the side of an English hill, its religious roots go back 2,000 years.

Holy Thorn tree on Wearyall Hill in Glastonbury as stunned locals look on.

The tree in all its glory before it was hacked apart. Legend says it sprang from the staff of Joseph of Arimathea, the man who helped Jesus off the cross. To the right of the tree, in the distance, is Glastonbury Tor

According to legend, Saint Joseph travelled to the spot after Christ was crucified, taking with him the Holy Grail of Arthurian folklore.

He is said to have stuck his wooden staff – which had belonged to Jesus – into the ground on Wearyall Hill before he went to sleep. When he awoke it had sprouted into a thorn tree, which became a natural shrine for Christians across Europe.

To add to its sacred status, the tree ‘miraculously’ flowered twice a year – once at Christmas and once at Easter. It survived for hundreds of years before it was chopped down by puritans in the Civil War, but secret cuttings of the original were taken and planted around the town.

It is from one of the new plants that a replacement tree was planted in the original spot over 50 years ago.

Yesterday residents of Glastonbury wept as they surveyed the damage done to the tree on Wednesday night. Katherine Gorbing, curator of the town’s abbey, said: ‘The mindless vandals who have hacked down this tree have struck at the heart of Christianity.

A member of the public gathers sprigs from the chopped branches while (right) onlookers cry and say prayers

BROUGHT TO LIFE BY JOSEPH OF ARIMATHEA, CHOPPED DOWN BY CROMWELL'S ROUNDHEADS, REBORN THANKS TO LOCALS

Christian legend dictates that Jesus's great uncle, Joseph of Arimathea came to Britain after the crucifixion 2,000 years ago bearing the Holy Grail -the cup used by Christ at the Last Supper.

He visited Glastonbury and thrust his staff into Wearyall Hill, just below the Tor, planting a seed for the original thorn tree.

Roundheads felled the tree during the English Civil War, when forces led by Oliver Cromwell waged a vicious battle against the Crown.

However, locals salvaged the roots of the original tree, hiding it in secret locations around Glastonbury.

It was then replanted on the hill in 1951. Other cuttings were also grown and placed around the town -including its famous Glastonbury Abbey.

Experts had verified that the tree -known as the Crategus Monogyna Bi Flora -originated from the Middle East.

A sprig of holy thorns was taken from the Thorn tree by Glastonbury's St Johns Church on Wednesday and sent to the Queen

The 100-year-old tradition will see the thorns sit on Her Majesty's dinner table on Christmas Day

‘It is the most significant of all the trees planted here and can be linked back to the origins of Christianity.

‘When I arrived at the Abbey this morning you could look over to the hill and see it was not there.

‘It’s a great shock to everyone in Glastonbury – the landscape of the town has changed overnight.’

Every winter a sprig of thorns from one of the town’s trees is sent to the Queen to be used as a table decoration on Christmas Day.

Glastonbury mayor John Coles, 66, took part in the annual cutting ceremony last week using the tree at St John’s Church.

Yesterday he recalled watching a tree being planted on Wearyall Hill in 1951 for the Festival of Britain. Although that specimen died, it was replaced the following year and stood firm until this week. Mr Coles said: ‘It’s the saddest thing I’ve seen in Glastonbury. Some of the main trunk is there but the branches have been sawn away. I am absolutely lost for words.’

Experts had verified that the tree – known as the Crategus Monogyna Bi Flora – originated from the Middle East.

Avon and Somerset police have begun an investigation but because there was no tree preservation order on the Holy Thorn, it means the vandals are unlikely to be prosecuted. The land on which the Holy Thorn stood is owned by Edward James, who was arrested this week in connection with an investigation into failed currency exchange firm Crown Currency Exchange, of which he is a director.

According to the administrator’s report, Crown Currency collapsed owing £16million with little more than £3million in the bank. Last night there was speculation that the attack on the Holy Thorn may have been part of a vendetta against him.

Leland's material provides invaluable evidence for reconstructing the lost "tomb" of Arthur (a twelfth-century fabrication) at Glastonbury Abbey.

On his itinerary of 1542, Leland was the first to record the tradition (possibly influenced by the proximity of the villages of Queen Camel and West Camel) identifying the hillfort of Cadbury Castle in Somerset as Arthur's Camelot:

"At the very south ende of the chirch of South-Cadbyri standeth Camallate, sumtyme a famose toun or castelle, apon a very torre or hille, wunderfully enstregnthenid of nature. . .The people can telle nothing ther but that they have hard say that Arture much resortid to Camalat.

MOTORING

xxxii

Palace Eye, on the east side of the Market Place. The Palace(the grounds are usually open to visitors on Wednesdays and Saturdays in summer from3-4.45p.m.)is surrounded by an embattled wall, and further protected by a wide moat, well known as the home of some highly intelligent swans.

Glastonbury.

Motor Park.—Market-place, beyond the Museum.

In comparison with Wells, Glastonbury is a place of memories, for the once flourishing Abbey is represented by a few ruined walls(the ruins are open weekdays only),and even those who climb the Tor will find difficulty in visualiz­ing the day when St. Joseph of Arimathea, sent by St. Philip the Apostle, came with a band of missionaries to preach the Gospel in Britain. They sailed up the Bristol Channel until they came in sight of a hill “ most like to Tabor’s holy mount,” for which St. Joseph—so the interesting old story goes—had been instructed in a dream to look.

This hill, which we know as Glastonbury Tor, was an island­like elevation amid the marshes. As Avalon, it is known in ancient romances and in Tennyson’sMorte D'Arthur.

Close to Glastonbury, on the road to Bridgwater, is Weary-all-Hill, or Wirral, the spot where St. Joseph and his com­panions, “ weary-all ” with their journey, are said to have landed, having steered their vessel up the river which then flowed at the foot of the slight eminence. Here St. Joseph, we read in the fascinating tradition, planted his pilgrim’s staff, which at once took root, sent forth branches, and made a practice of celebrating every Christmas Day by bursting into flower. It is certain that for many centuries there flourished here a tree famed through Christendom as the Glastonbury Thorn. It was regarded as of such sanctity that sailors car­ried sprigs from it for luck in their voyages, and dying men desired that some of its leaves should be buried with them. Visitors who make their way to the hill may find the cracked paving-stone marking the place where the tree flourished, and roughly inscribed " I.A.” (Joseph of Arimathea) " Ann. D. xxxi.”

For a full description of the ruins and of Glastonbury, we must refer readers to ourGuide to Wells, Glastonbury and Cheddar.

HARMSWORTH POPULAR SCIENCE

only possible among a nation with a knowledge of the sun’s apparent movements against the starry sphere ; and it is possible that the Babylonians accomplished it. It is only at the North and the South Poles that a stick stuck upright in the ground will indicate by its shadow the regular passage of the daylight hours. In lower latitudes the shadow cast by the upright rod or style of a sun-dial would so alter its position at the same hour, at various seasons of the year, that the instrument would be useless. For instance, at nine o’clock on a midsummer morning the shadow would fall a good distance away from the spot it would occupy at nine o’clock on a midwinter morning. So the marks on the dial would be very misleading. To make a proper sun-dial, it is necessary to calculate the different paths that the sun takes in its high summer course through the sky and in its low winter journey. It is easity done by giving the rod or style of a sun-dial the same direction as the axis of the earth. This sounds very abstruse and difficult, but in practice it only means that the style should point to the Polar Star. The position of its shadow in the sunlight will pot then alter with the varying path of the sun. The shadow at nine oTlock on a sunny winter morning will fall upon the same line as the shadow falls on a bright summer morning. The task of drawing the hour-marks on a dial is more difficult, as these occur at irregular intervals, instead of being evenly spaced round the dial. very ancient instrument of time measurement. It consists . of four stones, placed north, south, east, and west, and embedded in the solid rock. A leaning stone crosses in a diagonal manner the space formed by the outer stones. The structure is so built as to mark the turning points in the sun’s annual path; but its most interesting feature is the way in which the hours are indicated at certain times in the year by shadows falling on prominent points or edges of the monument. The north stone is really a sun-dial, and the south stone a style, while the east and diagonal stones fulfil both purposes. The structure thus appears to have been a sacred instrument used for measuring the time at certain

critical periods of the year, some of religious

and some of agricultural importance. Dr. McAldowie has lately uncovered several other burial mounds, and found beneath them other big, rough stone dials. He thinks they were the sacred places or temples of a very early race, and that they were converted into burial mounds by some alien invaders, who took over, as is often the case among ancient races, the traditions of sanctity attaching to the monuments.

It scarcely seems possible that these buried structures should all by mere chance be admirable sun-dials. The real question is whether they are later in date than Dr. McAldowie supposes. Our own opinion of the matter is that many so-called Druidical remains in our islands were in existence before the Celtic peoples and their medicine-men, the Druids, invaded the country. The Druids, no doubt, took over the traditions of sanctity attaching to Stonehenge and Avebury, and other similar prehistoric monuments ;. and it is quite likely that in some cases they may have continued, and improved upon, the work of the earlier builders. But on the whole we think that most of these strange monuments were the work of a native, non-Celtic people of the

THE CLOCK THAT WENT FOR 500 YEARS AT GLASTONBURY ABBEY

But the savages who lived in prehistoric times in Great Britain seem to have worked out part of the difficult art of making a sun-dial. A few months ago there was published in " Nature ” an abstract of some results of the excavations that Dr. McAl-dowie recently made in prehistoric burial mounds in Staffordshire and Gloucestershire. Near his own home, at Camp, the doctor has uncovered a huge, rough stone monument,

Tony Robinson of time team’

Not of the christian persuasion excavated saint georges island and reckons that local legend places joseph trading tin with the cornish leaving christ to play on the beach

Joseph of Arimathea was quite an enigma !

From history we learn that he was previously known as Joseph de Marmore as he lived in Marmorica in Egypt before he moved to Arimathea.

There is speculation that Joseph of Arimathea, or Joseph of Glastonbury as he later became known, was the uncle of Mary, mother of Jesus.

The relationship to Mary made him a Great Uncle of Jesus.

From this, we may presume that he was an elderly man at the time of the crucifixion.

We have few verifiable details about Joseph except that he was he was quite wealthy.

Some claim that Joseph of Arimathea was a merchant in metals and took young Jesus with him on his business trips to England, India, and even to South America.

It is a well documented fact that Britain led the world at this time with its tin mining.

Joseph of Arimathea was referred to by the Romans as 'Nobilis Decurio' or Minister of Mines to the Roman Government.
Joseph of Arimathea was not one of the original 12 apostles, but he was a disciple of Jesus and was an important man in his own right.

He is mentioned in all four gospels (Matthew: 27:57-60; Mark 15:43-46; Luke 23:50-55; John 19:38-42).

He was a high counselor, a voting member of the Sanhedrine which officially wanted Jesus condemned to death.

We may speculate that he had not consented to, or agreed with, the decision to push Pontius Pilate to impose the death penalty upon Jesus.

In spite of his relationship with Jesus, his loyalty to Him was largely kept secret (John 19:38).

Jesus was obviously unpopular with the elders of the church, and to outwardly support Him did not bring favor in their eyes (John 19:38).
Even though Joseph of Arimathea had attempted to keep his love for Jesus a secret, he boldly went to Pilate and asked for the body of Jesus to be placed in his trust.

This is significant in and of itself.

Joseph of Arimathea, not Mary Jesus' mother, not Mary Magdalene, or any of the apostles were entrusted with the act of taking Jesus down from the cross. Most of the apostles had fled anyway. Joseph took the body and put it in his own tomb. According to various historical sources, Joseph's actions provoked both the Roman and Jewish elders and he eventually did spend time in prison for his support of Jesus.

Other historical sources report that Joseph of Arimathea went on a preaching mission to Gaul with the apostle Phillip, Mary Magdalene, Lazarus, and others sometime between the years A.D. 37 and A.D. 63 (the year is in dispute). At Marseilles, Lazarus and Mary parted company with the main group who continued on further up North.

When Joseph's party reached the English Channel, Phillip sent Joseph with 12 disciples to the furthest corner of the Roman Empire, the Island of the Britons.

Legend has it that Joseph sailed around Land's End at the southern tip of England with the intent of catching up with old business acquaintances in the lead and tin mines.

They ran aground in the Glastonbury marshes.

Once again, it is reported that after climbing a nearby hill to survey the countryside, they were exhausted and Joseph thrust into the ground a staff made from the 'Holy Crown of Thorns' worn by Christ. He announced that he and his traveling companions were all weary. It is legendry that the thorn staff immediately took root and the thorn bush can still be seen today on 'Wearyall Hill.' Joseph built a church (Vetusta Ecclesia)5 of mud and wattle on the site and decreed that 12 monks should always reside in that most sacred place. It is interesting to note that a spirited shrub which grows near the now ruined Abbey is of the same type that grows in the Eastern Mediterranean and flowers only twice a year -Christmas time and Easter.6

It is also claimed that Joseph collected some of the blood and sweat of Christ after His side was pierced as He hung on the cross.

The chalice or cup which Joseph used to collect the fluids is reported to be the same one used during the last supper. Joseph took the cup with him on his voyage to England and is said to have hidden it on the site at Glastonbury, at the bottom of a deep well, called the 'Chalice Well', or the 'Blood Well.'

The well is a rather curious place, 25 thousand gallons of red-tinted water pass through the well area each day.

The red tint is caused by high iron content in the water.

St Indract of Glastonbury

Today (5 February) we commemorate St Indract, martyr at Glastonbury. From Baring-Gould & Fisher vol 3:

The story as given by Wilham of Malmesbury is to this effect : — Indract was the son of an Irish King, and he, with his sister Dominica, and nine companions, started on a pilgrimage across the sea. They got as far as the mouth of the Tamar, where they settled, and lived together for some time in prayer and strictness of life. Indract planted his staff in the ground, and it took root, and became a mighty oak.

He also made a pond, from which he daily drew fish, probably salmon, for his little community.

One day he discovered that a member of his society had privily carried off a fish for his private consumption, in addition to the regular meals. After this the supply failed, and Indract deemed it advisable to leave. What apparently took place was a quarrel among the members over the weir in the Tamar, which grew so hot that the congregation separated into factions, and one under Indract left. He went on to Rome, visited the tombs of the apostles, and then retraced his steps, and in course of time reached the neighbourhood of Glastonbury.

The little party lodged at Shapwick, when one of the officials of King Ina, named Horsa, supposing that the pilgrims had money, fell on them by night, murdered the entire party, and carried off whatever he could lay hands on.

King Ina at the time had his court at ” Pedrot.” Being unable to sleep during the night, he went forth, and saw a column of light standing over Shapwick. Probably Horsa had set fire to the cottage of wattles in which were his victims.

Next day Ina heard of the tragedy and ordered the removal of the bodies to Glastonbury, which he was refounding. Whether the murderer was punished we are not told. According to this legend the event took place about 710.

There are difficulties in the story. How could the early part of the history of the slaughtered men become known, as all had been massacred ? No such a person as Indract, son of a King in Ireland, is known in Irish history.

The name is, however, found as that of the twenty-first abbot of lona, who was in office in 849, in which year he transported the relics of S. Columba to Ireland. The Annals of Ulster state that he was killed by the Saxons on March 12, 854.

We are not informed where he was slain, and it is probable that this is the Indract of William of Malmesbury’s legend. Nothing more likely than that after having been abbot for a while, the desire came on him to visit the holy sites, and that for this purpose he traversed Wessex, and halted in Cornwall, where the British tongue was spoken. The massacre cannot bave been complete ; some of the pilgrims must have escaped, and the matter was brought to the ears, not of Ina, but of Ethelwulf , the father of Alfred the Great.

That Indract did visit Cornwall is shown by the church of Landrake bearing his name (Lan Indract) , and by the existence of his chapel and holy wellat Halton, in his sister’s foundation, S.Dominick on the Tamar. Some fragments of the chapel remain with fine ilex trees by it, conceivably scions of that tree which William of Malmesbury tells us existed, in his day, and was held to have originated out of the staff of the saint.

The Holy Well is in good order, and, though possessing no architectural beauty, is picturesquely situated under a large cherry tree. The water is of excellent quality and is unfailing. Water for baptisms in S. Dominick is drawn from this well, although situated at a considerable distance from the parish church.

Dr. Oliver gives the chapel as dedicated to S. Ilduict. This is one of his many blunders. The MS. of Bishop Stafford’s Register, from, which he drew his information, gives the chapel as that ” Sancti. Ildracti.” Ildract is, of course, Indract (March 6, 1418-9), but in this, entry the mistake is made by the Registrar of making the Saint a Confessor instead of a Martyr.

Landrake in Bishop Stapeldon’s Register, 1327, is Lanracke. In Domesday it is Riccan. It is now popularly called Larrick. The church, is supposed to be dedicated to S. Peter, and the village feast is held on June 29, S. Peter’s day. The name, however, and the situation, near S. Dominick, favour the idea that it was a foundation of S. Indract.

The day of SS. Indract and Dominica, according to Whytford and Wilson, is May 8. William of Worcester says, ” Sanctus Indractus martir et confessor die 8 Maii, jacet apud Shepton per 5 milaria de Glastynbery cum sociis suis centum martiribus.”

The Bollandists give February 5, on the worthless authority of Challoner. But May 8 is the day in the Altemps thirteenth century Martyrology, and in the fifteenth century Norwich Martyrology [Cotton. MS. Julius B vii), and in Capgrave.

In Art, Indract should be figured as a pilgrim with a salmon in his hand, and a staff that is putting forth oak leaves.

MEARE AND GODNEY

The village of Meare is about four miles South of Wedmore, and reached by a road across the “Moors”. It is on the South West border of Meare Pool, to which Camden assigns an area of 500 acres, and Leland an average circumference of 3 miles. The place has three buildings of much interest—church, manor-house, and abbot’s fish-house.

But apart from these, the renown of Meare has been spread far during recent years as the result of the thrilling excavation of Celtic lake dwellings by Doctor Bulleid of Glastonbury and his helpers. The site, now famous in Europe, must be an object of legitimate curiosity, but it is hard to find. In the village, a road W. of the church and running South, is marked “Meare Way” on a signpost. Turn down this for 100 yards or so along the level. On the “Moor side” is the stump of a notice board nearly opposite a red-ochred cottage. About 50 yards back in the marsh is a hut standing on a big mound in the angle between two ditches. Other mounds whose tops are about 3 feet above the general level, are on the West side of the ditch.

There are two distinct groups of dwellings separated by about 150 yards of level ground, and each group comprised about 50 huts: the combined groups occupy parts of about seven fields. These little artificial islands were made well over two thousand years ago some 200 yards from the shore of the Meare lake. Within recent years Great Britain, through Dr Arthur Bulleid, has made a remarkable contribution to the lore of lake-dwellings known in the world, though those of Meare are comparatively late, having been occupied during the prehistoric (early) iron age. The dwellings were built on artificial mounds made in shallow water near the lake shore with trunks of trees, brushwood, earth, and stone, the little islands being connected with the mainland by a raised causeway. Dr Bulleid discovered the Glastonbury (or Godney) site in 1892, and excavation followed from 1892-98, and from 1904-07, with the skilled assistance of Mr H. St George Gray, the well-known excavator and curator of Taunton Museum.

Then the village at Meare was discovered in 1895, and systematic investigation followed in 1908, 1911-14, and 1921 and following years. The quest is still proceeding. The Glastonbury site is on the Brue levels something more than a mile North of Glastonbury on the way to the village of Godney. The site is triangular and covers about j I acres. It comprises some 80-90 hemispherical mounds, with diameters ranging from 15 to 40 feet, each being the site of a dwelling. In each case on the underlying peat was laid a platform, of wood and this was bordered by a palisading of posts. On the wood was laid a floor of clay, and as in time this sank, a new one would be superimposed—a process repeated several times. A house was built of upright posts and walls of wattle and daub; a thatched roof was supported by a central post; and on the floor a clay hearth was set, of an average diameter of about 4 feet. The causeway was of clay rammed tight, to a depth of about feet on top of timbers. The occupation of these settlements was evidently continuous during the third and second centuries B.C., and certainly came to an end before or very soon after the civilization of Rome reached so far west as Somerset. The culture of the inhabitants is thoroughly shown by the objects to be seen in the museum. They include objects of bronze, tin, lead, and iron— a bronze bowl set round with bosses is the piece de resistance—of amber, glass, jet, and bone. The pottery is of the type we associate with the pre-Roman Celts, especially vessels with ornament of cordons round the shoulder. The human remains show that the people were of oval-headed Iberian type, men and women of shorter stature and slighter build than the long-heads (dolicho-cephalic). Their pottery and woodwork is that of late-Celtic art, just such as has been found at Wookey Hole, Ham Hill, and Worlebury Camp in Somerset, and on Mount Caburn and in other sites in Sussex and elsewhere. Here then stood the island dwellings of Celts who ploughed, spun and wove in the second and first centuries before Christ, and vanished when the Romans came. Whither? Possibly to some extent into the more inaccessible caves of Mendip, though some would seem to have simply transferred to the shores of their lakes. For, truly, these moor folk whom you may see between April and July cutting and stacking peat to dry on the marshes, might well be their descendants. They are an individual and somewhat retrograde race. Few have been off the moor, and those few very rarely. (The Godney site is, as was said above, about ij miles from Glastonbury, on the right-hand side of the road, where the words “British Village” are marked very faintly on a white gate-post.)

(Read The Lake-villages of Somerset, by Arthur Bulleid, L.R.C.P., F.S.A. Price 2s., Folk Press, London, S.W.)

But Meare has yet other things to show. The abbots of Glastonbury used to own the lake and exploit its fish. Here they were en compagne, and no doubt the Manor House (immediately E. of the church, i.e. on the Glastonbury side) was a “week-end” establishment. The striking features outside are the tall porch with a curved gable and a crude figure a-top, and the three buttresses on the E. side of the front. There is a dining hall 60 feet long on the first floor, with fireplace and windows. This house seems to have been built in the time of Adam de Sodbury (1322-35). The Fish House (1335) is next (E.) to the Manor House and on the edge of the old mere, and is now under the care of the Office of Works, and has been re-roofed since a fire destroyed the original timber roof some years back. When built, it contained a ground floor and storey, the latter reached by outside steps, the former being in two halves with communication by two pointed doorways. The living room was upstairs, the fishing tackle below. The church has a chancel of the fourteenth century, and nave, aisles, and a stone pulpit of the fifteenth. On the charming parapet of the S. aisle is the monogram of Abbot Selwood, last-but-one abbot of Glastonbury. The tracery of the E. window is uncommon.

While near Meare I had an opportunity of seeing something of the peat industry. Three strong young fellows were down in a trench six-foot deep, the sides of which were cut as straight as a brick wall. About 31 feet down began, perfectly level and perfectly distinct, the stratum which it is worth digging. All the loose top-soil has to be cleared off, and then the desirable seam is cut out from above into 6-inch cubes, and left out to dry till fit for carting, when they are sold by the thousand.

By miles of ditch-guarded roads, shaded by long rows of pollard willows—roads which, by a not unpleasant change, you have all to yourself—you come to Glastonbury.

GLASTONBURY (716 Glestingaburg. D.,

Glasting-berie: Glessenbyri {Leiand); the fort of the Glas tings).—

The ground on which rises Glastonbury Tor and on whicb the township and abbey of Glastonbury were built, was called in ancient days the Isle of Avalon.

To realize its insular character it is necessary to go up the Tor or some of the neighbouring high places; but a glance at the map is far more satisfactory.

Roughly, a great arm of the sea came in from the Bristol Channel betweenMendipand Quantock, and

Standing proudly on the side of an English hill, its religious roots go back 2,000 years.

Holy Thorn tree on Wearyall Hill in Glastonbury as stunned locals look on.

The tree in all its glory before it was hacked apart. Legend says it sprang from the staff of Joseph of Arimathea, the man who helped Jesus off the cross. To the right of the tree, in the distance, is Glastonbury Tor

According to legend, Saint Joseph travelled to the spot after Christ was crucified, taking with him the Holy Grail of Arthurian folklore.

He is said to have stuck his wooden staff – which had belonged to Jesus – into the ground on Wearyall Hill before he went to sleep. When he awoke it had sprouted into a thorn tree, which became a natural shrine for Christians across Europe.

To add to its sacred status, the tree ‘miraculously’ flowered twice a year – once at Christmas and once at Easter. It survived for hundreds of years before it was chopped down by puritans in the Civil War, but secret cuttings of the original were taken and planted around the town.

It is from one of the new plants that a replacement tree was planted in the original spot over 50 years ago.

Yesterday residents of Glastonbury wept as they surveyed the damage done to the tree on Wednesday night. Katherine Gorbing, curator of the town’s abbey, said: ‘The mindless vandals who have hacked down this tree have struck at the heart of Christianity.

A member of the public gathers sprigs from the chopped branches while (right) onlookers cry and say prayers

BROUGHT TO LIFE BY JOSEPH OF ARIMATHEA, CHOPPED DOWN BY CROMWELL'S ROUNDHEADS, REBORN THANKS TO LOCALS

Christian legend dictates that Jesus's great uncle, Joseph of Arimathea came to Britain after the crucifixion 2,000 years ago bearing the Holy Grail -the cup used by Christ at the Last Supper.

He visited Glastonbury and thrust his staff into Wearyall Hill, just below the Tor, planting a seed for the original thorn tree.

Roundheads felled the tree during the English Civil War, when forces led by Oliver Cromwell waged a vicious battle against the Crown.

However, locals salvaged the roots of the original tree, hiding it in secret locations around Glastonbury.

It was then replanted on the hill in 1951. Other cuttings were also grown and placed around the town -including its famous Glastonbury Abbey.

Experts had verified that the tree -known as the Crategus Monogyna Bi Flora -originated from the Middle East.

A sprig of holy thorns was taken from the Thorn tree by Glastonbury's St Johns Church on Wednesday and sent to the Queen

The 100-year-old tradition will see the thorns sit on Her Majesty's dinner table on Christmas Day

‘It is the most significant of all the trees planted here and can be linked back to the origins of Christianity.

‘When I arrived at the Abbey this morning you could look over to the hill and see it was not there.

‘It’s a great shock to everyone in Glastonbury – the landscape of the town has changed overnight.’

Every winter a sprig of thorns from one of the town’s trees is sent to the Queen to be used as a table decoration on Christmas Day.

Glastonbury mayor John Coles, 66, took part in the annual cutting ceremony last week using the tree at St John’s Church.

Yesterday he recalled watching a tree being planted on Wearyall Hill in 1951 for the Festival of Britain. Although that specimen died, it was replaced the following year and stood firm until this week. Mr Coles said: ‘It’s the saddest thing I’ve seen in Glastonbury. Some of the main trunk is there but the branches have been sawn away. I am absolutely lost for words.’

Experts had verified that the tree – known as the Crategus Monogyna Bi Flora – originated from the Middle East.

Avon and Somerset police have begun an investigation but because there was no tree preservation order on the Holy Thorn, it means the vandals are unlikely to be prosecuted. The land on which the Holy Thorn stood is owned by Edward James, who was arrested this week in connection with an investigation into failed currency exchange firm Crown Currency Exchange, of which he is a director.

According to the administrator’s report, Crown Currency collapsed owing £16million with little more than £3million in the bank. Last night there was speculation that the attack on the Holy Thorn may have been part of a vendetta against him.

Leland's material provides invaluable evidence for reconstructing the lost "tomb" of Arthur (a twelfth-century fabrication) at Glastonbury Abbey.

On his itinerary of 1542, Leland was the first to record the tradition (possibly influenced by the proximity of the villages of Queen Camel and West Camel) identifying the hillfort of Cadbury Castle in Somerset as Arthur's Camelot:

"At the very south ende of the chirch of South-Cadbyri standeth Camallate, sumtyme a famose toun or castelle, apon a very torre or hille, wunderfully enstregnthenid of nature. . .The people can telle nothing ther but that they have hard say that Arture much resortid to Camalat.

MOTORING 1932

xxxii

Palace Eye, on the east side of the Market Place. The Palace (the grounds are usually open to visitors on Wednesdays and Saturdays in summer from3-4.45p.m.)is surrounded by an embattled wall, and further protected by a wide moat, well known as the home of some highly intelligent swans.

Glastonbury.

Motor Park.—Market-place, beyond the Museum.

In comparison with Wells, Glastonbury is a place of memories, for the once flourishing Abbey is represented by a few ruined walls(the ruins are open weekdays only),and even those who climb the Tor will find difficulty in visualiz­ing the day when St. Joseph of Arimathea, sent by St. Philip the Apostle, came with a band of missionaries to preach the Gospel in Britain. They sailed up the Bristol Channel until they came in sight of a hill “ most like to Tabor’s holy mount,” for which St. Joseph—so the interesting old story goes—had been instructed in a dream to look.

This hill, which we know as Glastonbury Tor, was an island­like elevation amid the marshes. As Avalon, it is known in ancient romances and in Tennyson’sMorte D'Arthur.

Close to Glastonbury, on the road to Bridgwater, is Weary-all-Hill, or Wirral, the spot where St. Joseph and his com­panions, “ weary-all ” with their journey, are said to have landed, having steered their vessel up the river which then flowed at the foot of the slight eminence. Here St. Joseph, we read in the fascinating tradition, planted his pilgrim’s staff, which at once took root, sent forth branches, and made a practice of celebrating every Christmas Day by bursting into flower. It is certain that for many centuries there flourished here a tree famed through Christendom as the Glastonbury Thorn. It was regarded as of such sanctity that sailors car­ried sprigs from it for luck in their voyages,

, ᚔ IIdad'Yew-tree' sinem fedo ,
, "oldest tree" caínem sen ,
, "fairest of the ancients" lúth lobair ,

Meare Heath Bow the views expressed below are 50 years old now

Christianity, and established a community of anchorites.

Among these, later, St Patrick introduced a regular monastic life, and when the rest of England reverted to paganism, Glastonbury continued to shine as a beacon-light of the true faith.

The stories of the Arthurian epic, which have come down to us chiefly through Geoffrey of Monmouth, Malory, and Tennyson, have found a habitation at Glastonbury, and Leland asserts that Arthur was here a frequent visitor. We seem to tread firm historical ground with King Ina of Wessex who, in 704, in the Wattle Church, signed a charter, which still exists, confirming to the Benedictine monks certain rights. Their monastery, maimed but not killed by Danish incursions, grew to greatness under Dunstan, made abbot by King Edmund about 943. So many privileges and estates were conferred on the abbey during three and a half centuries, that at the time of the Domesday Survey Glastonbury was one of the very rich and influential monasteries in this country, owning broad lands in Berks, Dorset, Wilts, and Somerset, but particularly the ancient lordship called Glaston Twelve Hides, privileged and non-taxpaying, within which the King’s writ ceased to run. The first Norman abbot, Thurstin, was a great builder: Henry of Blois, King Stephen’s brother (1126-1171), set William of Malmesbury to indite the history of the Abbey; and, causing search to be made—so runs the story—discovered, with inscription complete, the buried remains of King Arthur, which were taken as sacred relics into the church. In 1184, the whole of the church, a great part of the monastery, with the

116

A Survey of the Somerset Fairs

The charter of king John also granted that the Dean and Chapter of Wells, and the prior and monks of Bath should be free of toll throughout the king’s land for all that they should

buy and sell. By fortunate chance an interesting example has

survived of the careful way in which such privileges were safeguarded. The following incident is given in full, both for the

quaintness of its language, and for the light it throws upon the

punctilious manner of such medieval transactions. The date

is 1250 :2S

Memorandum that on Sunday before St. Andrew 1250 (Sunday

letter B) William, de Beaumunt provost of Bristol gave back to H. subdean of Wells one halfpenny taken of Walter son of the late Simon de Heanton his man for toll of a fish sold there, and to John de Derham three farthings

taken of three men for wheat etc. sold there : and this was done towards the

Avene bridge before the seld of Wm. the goldsmith, in the presence of

. . . Clerk of the Toll house, who read the king’s charter before the

said Wm. de Beaumunt in the street, by these tokens, that the said W.

changed a penny with W. the goldsmith for four farthings whereof he

handed three to the said John, and the bell was ringing for Vespers.

And Wm. de Beaumunt added, after hearing the charter read, that he

knew the canons’ men should be quit of toll, and if any had to pay, it was

for want of an oath that they were their villeins. Next day this was

repeated in the toll house by the subdean, and after by Wm. de Beaumunt

before Simon the clerk, mayor of the town, and several burgesses, and

the charter read by Jordan the clerk, whereupon the subdean and the

said John by leave of the mayor withdrew with their toll repaid.

We have already noted elsewhere the transference of fairs to

Priddy and Binegarin time of plague, and the subsequent

duplication of fair days. The four seasons of the year—May,

June, October, and November were observed in Wells down

till the eighteenth century, the lists of 1729 and 1785 both

giving fairs at those times, though the precise date is not

always the same.

Collinson, by a curious misreading of Calixtus, presents us with a fair on St. Catherine’s day. To-day there are only two Wells fairs—one on the first Saturday in May, now known as May Market, and the other on the first Tuesday in December. This is the St. Andrew’s fair. Both are now pleasure fairs, held in the street in front of the Town Hall, though some cattle are sold at the ordinary market during the day. The fairs last only one day, to which is attached an evening pleasure fair on the preceding

25 Calendar of MSS. of Dean and Chapter, vol. i, p. 88

Amid these Joseph in marble

Of Arimathea by name

Hath found perpetual sleep

And he lies on a two-forked line

Next the south corner of an oratory

Fashioned of wattles

For the adoring of a mighty Virgin

In his sarcophagus

Two cruets, white and silver

Filled with blood and sweat

Of the Prophet Jesus

When his sarcophagus

Shall be found entire, intact

In time to come, it shall be seen

And shall be open unto all the world

Thenceforth nor water nor the dew of heaven

Shall fail the dwellers in that ancient isle

For a long while before

The day of judgment in Josaphat

Open shall these things be

And declared to living men.[

Llancarvan,

Glamorganshire,

Wales,

was a college and monastery founded apparently about the middle of the fifth century.

Most Welsh writers assign it to the period of St. Germanus's visit to Britain in A.D.447, stating further that the first principal was St. Dubric, or Dubricius, on whose elevation to the episcopate St. Cadoc, orCattwg,succeeded. On the other hand the Life of St. Germanus, written by Constantius, a priest of Lyons, about fifty years after the death of the saint, says nothing at all of any school founded by him or under his auspices, in Britain, nor is mention made of his presence in Wales. The other tradition, supported by the ancient lives of St. Cadoc, assigns the foundation of Llancarvan to that saint, which would place it about a century later than the former date. As, however, these lives confound two, or possibly three, saints of the same name, nothing really certain can be gathered from them. In the "Liber Landavensis" the Abbot of Llancarvan appears not infrequently as a witness to various grants, but none of these is earlier than the latter part of the sixth century. The Abbot of Llancarvan assisted at a council held at Llandaff in 560, which passed sentence of excommunication upon Meurig, King of Glamorgan.

Dumnonia and Glaston.

UMNONIA,therefore,as a geographical term, seems to lie in the background of our national, and especially West-Country, annals, as a somewhat dim and uncertain region, regarded as a half fabulous realm, not to be defined by modern counties or by modern Bishoprics, although the name has survived in Devon. It has long since dropped out of use and finds little mention in our text-books. William of Malmesbury could say “ In Dumnonia quae Devenscire dicitur 55 and render himself intelligible to men of his own age (1143) ; and, further back still in our history, Asser, the biographer of King Alfred, could quote “ Dumnonia" , as already noted, probably meaning Devon and part of Somerset reaching up to the Parret mouth and, perhaps, further east still, towards Bristol (a .d . 875-900).

That there was a Church if not a distinct Diocese in Dumnonia, we may infer from a letterwritten by Aldhelm, Bishop of Sherborne in a d 704 who gave a kind of pastoral charge to Gerontius, King of Dumnoiiia, and to all priests (sacerdotes) living inDumnonia. The view of Aldhelm, who was partially Romanized, was that Dumnonia was rather uncivilized (dira), a view we need not endorse, as he probably meant that the Celtic Church was not sufficiently imbued with Roman and papal influences.

The old Roman geographers used the name of Dumnonia mid had a definition for it, Claudius Ptolemaeus ad 150 placing the Dumnonii next to the Durotriges or Dorsaetas,

i.e. men of Dorset, on the east, and extending this region to" Volida" ie Fowey or Falmouth in Cornwall.

He gave them Isca Dumnoniorum (Exeter) and Caerleon.On the Coast

28 Dumnonia

of Somerset Dumnonia included Uxella on the Axe and Uphill1 above Brean.

This certainly would include 4'Anchor Head ” on the present site of Weston-super-Mare with the old fort of Worlesborough above it.

It is worth noticing that a later

Roman geographer,Caius Julius Solinus,a .d . 238 extended

the Dumnonii much further up the Severn and placed them

opposite to the Silures.

Dr. Guest in his “ Origines Celticae,” 2 conjectures that the bounds of Dumnonia stretched from Malmesbury to the

Land’s End and that the kings of Dumnonia had added to this realm by conquest and that, in the days of Gereint,

Dumnonia must have been in power and dignity the first of

the British Kingdoms.

He writes : " It is not my object to

trace the several stages of decay through which the power of Dumnonia passed as it melted away before the ascendancy of England.

The more intimate relations of this British

Kingdom were no doubt with the kindred races of Wales and Brittany, but the influences it exercised over the national

progress and even over the literature of its English neighbours

were by no means of slight account, though they have been

strangely overlooked.

They afford, I think, the only solution of some of the most intricate problems connected with our

early history, and materials for such inquiry may be scanty,

but they are not altogether wanting.”

The three chief “ perpetual choirs ” of the Isle of Britain

were : (1) That of Llan Iltud Vawr in Glamorgan ; (2) That

of Ambrosius in Ambresbury, near Salisbury ;

(3) That of Glaston. In each of these choirs there were 2,400, that is

there were one hundred for every hour of the day and night

in rotation perpetuating the praise of God without rest or

intermission. What may be termed the spiritual life of an

enlarged Dumnonia was centred around these places about

a .d . 500. This implied a kind of national unity from Salisbury to the Land’s End. When, later on, the Bishopric of

Sherborne was formed and Aldhelm ruled over “ Selwood1. See “ George of Ravenna,” p. 424. Urbs ab Uxellae ostio longe

separata. Fluvius est Axe— Uxella forte est Axbridge : also “ History of

the Ancient Britons,” by J. A. Giles, D.C.L., vol. ii, p. 102.

2. Vol. ii, pp. 270-2.

Dumnonia and Glaston 2 9

shire/’ this inland continuity from Wiltshire westward was

slightly impaired about a .d . 700. But Dumnonia unity was

preserved along the north coasts and littoral of the Severn

Sea, being in its very nature maritime and its inhabitants seafaring. Glaston and Llan Iltud Vawr preserved their Celtic

traditions. It was a matter of navigation and of a sea-andriver-intercourse, easier in its way than travel through inland

forests and less perilous.

That road or highway, possibly of Roman origin, linking

Dumnonia and its northern parts together, leading from

Bristol (and Bath) westward to Uxella or Axbridge, Brent and

so to Cynwith or Comwith passage on the Parret was first

constructed with a strategic and maritime purpose. It was

the trunk road of ancient Dumnonia for all purposes. It

helped the pilgrim also on his way to Glaston and was connected with all land routes and especially with the sea routes

across Severn. Glaston also had its river anchorages, its

canals and moorland boats (batelli) and river craft. The tidal

wave swept humble currough or larger barge and vessel up to its

sacred portals.

If we adopt Sir Charles Elton’s definitions of ancient Siluria1

and infer that it meant a block of Wales including Glamorgan

and Hereford, as well as Monmouth, it will be seen that the

Dumnonii must have been found some distance up the Severn.

Hath and Bristol (Bristowa, the town of the British) ; both

with churches dedicated to St. Michael, would have been

occupied by them. Gildas, our oldest historian, who knew

the Severn well, mentions a certain “ King of Dumnonia ”

Constantine by name (Dumnoniae tyrannus), as apart from

Vortipore, King of Demetia which we assume to mean geographically, South Wales and not simply Pembroke. The

name of Constantine, it may be noted, introduces early

Christian association (300-400). To-day there is a Cornish

parish near Falmouth called Constantine where it is said

a lthough the rumour cannot be substantiated) silver coins

of Arthur were found near the church.2 Constantine, also,

1 Elton’s “ Origins of English History,” p. 141.

2 Lewis’ “ Topographical Dictionary,” vol. i, p. 509.

"ABDICK and BULSTONE HUNDRED, in the southern part of Somersetshire, bounded on the N. by North Carry hundred, part of Somerton hundred, and Pitney hundred;

on the E. by East Petherton and South Kingsbury hundreds; on the S. by part of South Petherton hundred and part of East Kingsbury hundred;

and on the W. by Taunton and Taunton Dean hundreds It contains the parishes of Ashill, Beer-Crocombe Bickenhall, South Braden, Broadway, Buckland St. Mary, Cricket-Malherbe, Curland, Curry-Malet, Curry-Rivel, Donyatt, West Dowlish, Drayton, Earnshill, Fivehead, Hatch-Beauchamp, Ilminster,

Ilton, Isle-Abbots, Isle-Brewers, White-Lackington, Puckington, Staple-Fitzpaine, Stokelinch St. Magdalen, Stokelinch-Ottersay, and Swell."

"ANDERSFIELD HUNDRED, in the county of Somerset, is bounded on the N. by Cannington hundred, on the E. by Whitley hundred, on the S. by North Petherton hundred, and on the W. by Taunton Dean hundred; and comprises the parishes of Broomfield, Creech St. Michael, Enmore, Goathurst, and Lyng, with parts of Durleigh, Chilton Trinity, and North Petherton.

The area of the hundred is about 11,000 acres."

"BATH FORUM HUNDRED, one of the 40 hundreds or subdivisions of the county of Somerset,situated in the eastern division of the county, and bounded on the N. by the county of Gloucester, on the E. by Wiltshire, on the S. by the hundred of Wellow, and on the W. by the hundred of Keynsham. It contains the city of Bath, and the parishes of Batheaston, Bathford, Bathwick, St. Katherine Freshford, Kelston, Langridge, Lyncombe and Widcombe, Moncktoncombe, North Stoke, South Stoke, Swainswick, Weston, and Woolley. It comprises an area, exclusive of the city, of about 15,600 acres."

"BEMPSTONE HUNDRED, one of the 40 hundreds or subdivisions of the county of Somerset, situated in the eastern division, and bounded on the N. by the hundred of Winterstoke, on the E. by the hundred of Wells Forum, on the S. by the hundreds of Glaston-Twelve-Hides, Whitley, and Huntspill and Puriton;

on the W. by the Bristol Channel, and on the N.W. by part of the hundred of Brent-with-Wrington. It contains the parishes of Allerton Chapel, Biddisham, Breane, Burnham, Mark, Weare, and Wedmore, and comprises an area of about 24,530 acres."

"BRENT-CUM-WRINGTON HUNDRED, one of the 40 hundreds or subdivisions of the county of Somerset, situated in the eastern parliamentary division of the county It is in two parts, which lie at the distance of several miles from each other; the Brent district being on the W. side of the Mendip hills, and surrounded by the Bristol Channel and the hundreds of Bempstone and Winterstoke; the Wrington district being bounded on the N. and E. by the hundred of Harteliffe-with-Bedminster, and on the S. and W. by the hundred of Winterstoke. The parishes contained in the hundred are those of Borrow, East Brent, South Brent, Barrington, Lympsham, and Wrington.

The hundred spreads over an area of about 18,200 acres."

"BRUTON HUNDRED, one of the 40 hundreds or subdivisions of the county of Somerset, situated in the eastern parliamentary division of the county, and hounded on the N. by the hundreds of Wells-Forum and Frome, on the E. by the hundred of Norton Ferris, on the S.W. by the hundred of Catsash, and on the W. by the hundred of Whitestone. It contains the parishes of North Brewham, South Brewham, Bruton, Eastrip, Milton-Clevedon, Pitcombe, Upton Noble, and Yarlington. The hundred comprises an area of about 14,250 acres."

"CANNINGTON HUNDRED, one of the 40 hundreds or subdivisions of the county of Somerset, situated in the western parliamentary division of the county, and bounded on the N. by the Bristol Channel; on the E. by the hundred of North Petherton; on the S. by the hundreds of Andersfield and Taunton Dean; and on the W. by the hundred of Williton. It contains the parishes of Aisholt, Cannington, Charlinch, Fiddington, Otterhampton, Spaxton, Stockland-Bristol, Stogursey, Over Stowey, and Stringston. The hundred comprises an area of about 25,480 acres."

"CARHAMPTON HUNDRED, one of the 40 hundreds or subdivisions of the county of Somerset, situated in the western parliamentary division of the county, and bounded on the N. by the sea, on the E. and S. by the hundred of Williton Freemanors, and on the W. by Devonshire. It contains the parishes of Carhampton, Culbone, Cutcombe, Dunster, Exford, Luckham, Luxborough, Minehead, Care, Porlock, Selworthy, Stoke-Pero, Timberscombe, Treborough, Withycombe, and Wootton-Courtenay. The hundred extends over an area of about 60,350 acres."

"CATSASH HUNDRED, one of the 40 hundreds or subdivisions of the county of Somerset, situated in the east parliamentary division of the county, and bounded on the N. by the hundreds of Whitley, Glaston Twelve Hides, and Whitestone; on the E. by the hundred of Bruton; on the S. by the hundred of Horethorn; and on the W. by the hundred of Somerton. It contains the parishes of Alford, Almsford, Babcary, North Barrow, South Barrow, St. David Barton, North Cadbury, South Cadbury, Castle-Cary, Compton-Pauncefoot, Keinton-Mansfield, Kingweston, Lovington, West Lydford, Maperton, Queen Camel, Sparkford, Sutton-Montis, and Weston-Bampfield. The hundred extends over an area of about 25,300 acres."

"CHEW,a hundred in the north-eastern portion of the county of Somerset; contains the parishes of Chew Magna, Chew Stoke, Clutton, Dundry, Norton-Hawkfield, Norton-Malreward, Stowey, and Timsbury, comprising 15,120 acres. The deanery of Chew, in the diocese of Bath and Wells, includes the whole of the hundred"

"CHEWTON, a hundred in the N.E. portion of county Somerset; it contains the parishes of Brockley, Cameley, Chewton-Mendip, Chilcompton, Compton-Martin, Emborough, Farrington-Gurney, West Harptree, Hinton-Blewett, Kingston-Seymour, High Littleton, Midsomer-Norton, Paulton, Stone Easton, and Ubley, comprising, 31,580 acres. It forms part of the deanery of Chew."

"CREWKERNE, a hundred in the S. part of the county of Somerset, contains the parishes of St. George Hinton, Crewkerne, Misterton, Merriott, Wayford, and Seaborough, comprising 13,260 acres. Crewkerne gives name to a deanery in the archdeaconry of Taunton, and diocese of Bath and Wells."

"DUNKERRY BEACON, a hill in the county of Somerset, 7 miles S.W. of Dunster. It rises to the height of 1,700 feet, and commands a fine view of the surrounding country."

"EXE, a river rising in Exmoor Forest on the borders of counties Somerset and Devon. It was anciently called the Isca or Isaca, and after passing Exeter, falls into the Channel by a wide mouth at Exmouth Bar."

"FROME HUNDRED, one of the 20 hundreds or subdivisions of county Somerset, situated in the eastern part of the county, and bounded on the N. by the hundred of Wellow, on the E. by the county of Wilts, on the S. by the hundred of Norton Ferrers, and on the W. by the hundred of Kelmersdon. It comprises the borough of Frome-Selwood, and the parishes of Beckington, Berkeley, Cloford, East Cranmore, Elm, Laverton, Leigh, Luddington, Marston-Bigott, Mells, Nunney, Orchardleigh, Road, Rodden, Standerwick, Wanstrow, Whatley, Witham-Friary, and Woolverton. The hundred contains an area of 37,620 acres."

"GLASTON-TWELVE-HIDES, a hundred in the middle division of county Somerset, containing the parishes of Baltonsborough, West Bradley, Glastonbury, Meare, Nyland, West Pennard, and North Wootton, comprising together about 24,610 acres."

"HAMPTON, a hundred or liberty in county Somerset, contains the parishes of Bathampton, Charlcombe, and Claverton; comprising an area of 2,610 acres."

"HARTCLIFFE, a hundred in the county Somerset, contains the parishes of Long Ashton, Backwell, Barrow-Gurney, Bedminster, Butcombe, Chelvey, and Winford, comprising an area' of 19,440 acres."

"HORETHORNE, a hundred in county Somerset, contains the parishes of Abbas Combe, Charlton Horethorne, North Cheriton, Corton-Denham, Goathill, Henstridge, Hersington, Marston Magna, Milborne Port, Pointington, Sandford Orcas, Stowell, and Trent, comprising an area of 26,370 acres."

"HOUNDSBOROUGH, (and Barwick and Coker) a hundred in county Somerset, contains the parishes of Barwick, Chilton Cantelo, Chinnock (East, Middle, and West), Chiselborough, Closeworth, Coker, Hardington-Mandeville, Haselbury Plucknett, Norton-under-Hamdon, Odcombe, Pendomer, North Perrott, and Sutton Bingham, comprising an area of 18,890 acres."

"HUNTSPILL AND PURITON, a hundred in county Somerset, contains the parishes of Huntspill and Puriton, comprising about 6,800 acres."

"KEYNSHAM, a hundred in county Somerset.It contains the parishes of Brislington, Burnett, Chelwood, Compton-Dando, Farmborough, Keynsham, Marksbury, Nempnett Thrubwell, Pensford. Priston, Publow, Queen Charlton, Saltford, Stanton-Drew, Stanton-Prior, and Whitchurch, comprising 24,520 acres."

"KILMERSDON, a hundred in the county Somerset, contains the parishes of Ashwick, Babington, Buckland-Denham, Hardington, Hemington, Holcombe, Kilmersdon, Radstock, Stratton-on-the-Fosse, and Writhlington, comprising an area of 15,400 acres."

"KINGSBURY, a hundred in county Somerset, in six detached portions. It contains the parishes of Chard, Combe, Huish-Episcopi, Kingsbury-Episcopi, Winsham, Ash Priors, West Buckland, Fitzhead, Bishops Lydeard, Wellington, and Wiveliscombe, comprising an area of 36,690 acres."

"LANSDOWN HILL, near Prior Park, county Somerset, 2 miles S.E. of Bath. It rises to the height of 800 feet, and commands a view of 40 miles. On its summit are remains of a Saxon camp, also Beckford's Tower, and a column to Sir Bevill Granville, who fell in a battle fought here in 1643, in which Waller was defeated. On its slopes are a range of houses, St. Stephen's church, and a cemetery. The Petty family take from this place the title of marquis."

"MENDIP HILLS, a range of rugged heights in the northern division of county Somerset, between the rivers Axe and Yeo, and stretching from near Shepton Mallet to the coast. The hills, which consist chiefly of mountain limestone and Old Red sandstone, are broken with caverns and chasms, and were once covered with a dense wood. They are rich in lead, iron, calamine, manganese, red ochre, and other minerals.

Professor Ansted has recently (1862) discovered, at St. Cuthbert's, in the Mendip Hills, about three miles from Wells,

a deposit of lead-producing debris of old mines and lead washings of ancient miners, filling up the bed of a stream that flowed in former ages. This metallic slime, of exceeding richness, amounts, he says, to 600,000 tons, extends over 25 acres, to the depth of 30 feet, and is computed to be worth half a million of money for the lead which it contains."

"MERSTON, a deanery in county Somerset. See Marston Magna."

"MILVERTON, a hundred in county Somerset, contains the parishes of Ashbrittle, Bathealton, Kittisford, Langford-Budville, Milverton, Runnington, Sampford-Arundell, Stawley, and Thorn St. Margaret, comprising an area of 12,250 acres."

"NORTH CURRY, a hundred in the county of Somerset; contains the parishes of West Hatch, St. Gregory Stoke, North Curry, Thurlbear, and Thorne Falcon, comprising 12,940 acres.

"NORTH PETHERTON, a hundred in the county of Somerset, contains the town of Bridgwater and the parishes of Bawdrip, Chedzoy, Chilton Trinity, Durston, St. Michael Church, Pawlett, North Petherton, Thurloxton, and part of Wembdon, comprising an area of 23,150 acres, exclusive of Bridgwater.

"NORTON-FERRIS, a hundred in the county of Somerset, contains the parishes of Bratton-Seymour, Charlton-Musgrave, Chucklington, Kilmington, Penselwood, Shepton-Montague, Stoke-Trister, Wincanton, and parts of Maiden Bradley, and Stourton, comprising an area of 18,730 acres."

"PARRET, (or Perrott), a river rising on the borders of Dorsetshire and Somersetshire, and falling into the Bristol Channel at Stert Point, near Burnham lighthouse. It is navigable to its junction with the Yeo.

"PENNY-POUND, a barren spot on Sedgmoor, county Somerset, 4 miles S.E. of Bridgwater. It is situated near Weston Zoyland, at the place where Sir Thomas Fairfax encamped after the battle of Langport in 1645, and where the adherents of James II., under the Earl of Feversham, defeated the Duke of Monmouth in 1685."

"PITNEY, a hundred in the county of Somerset, contains the parishes of Langport-Eastover, Muchelney, and Pitney, comprising an area of 3,690 acres."

"PORTBURY, a hundred in the county of Somerset, contains the parish of Abbots Leigh, Bourton, Glapton, Clevedon, Easton-in-Gordano, Nailsea, Portbury, Portishead, Tickenham, Walton, Weston-in-Gordano, and Wraxall, comprising an area of 23,980 acres."

"RALEIGH'S CROSS, a meet for the West Somerset hounds, county Somerset, 4 miles N.W. of Wiveliscombe."

"SEDGMOOR,an extensive marshy tract in the hundred of Whitley, county Somerset, 5 miles S.E. of Bridgwater. The Duke of Monmouth was defeated here in 1685. It is celebrated in the scientific world as the spot where a base line of the Trigonometrical Survey was measured."

"SELWOOD, an extensive forest on the borders of counties Wilts and Somerset, between Westbury and Frome. It was called by the Britons Coed-mawr, or "the great wood," and by the Saxons Sealwuda, and is celebrated in history as being the retreat of Alfred the Great before the battle of Ethandune."

"SOMERTON,a hundred in county Somerset, contains the parishes of Aller, West Carmel, Charlton-Adam, Charlton-Mackrell, Kingston, East Lydford, Somerton, Long Sutton, and Yeovilton, comprising an area of 25,450 acres."

"SOUTH PETHERTON,a hundred in the county of Somerset, contains the parishes of Barrington, Chaffcombe, Chillington, Cricket St. Thomas, Cudworth, Dinnington, Dowlish Wake, St. Giles Knowle, Lopen, Niden, South Petherton, Seavington, Shepton-Beauchamp, and Whit-Staunton, comprising an area of 14,680 acres,

"STERT, (or Start), an islet in Bridgwater Bay, county Somerset, 7½ miles N. of Bridgwater, at the mouth of the river Parret.

"STONE, a hundred in the county of Somerset, contains the parishes of Ashington, Brimpton, Chilthorne, Domer, Limington, Lufton, Mudford, Preston, Plucknett, and Yeovil, comprising an area of 10,720 acres."

"TAUNTON,(or Taunton Dean), a hundred of county Somerset, contains the town of Taunton and the parishes of Angersleigh,

West Bagborough,

Bradford,

Cheddon Fitzpaine,

Combe-Florey, Corfe, Cothelstone, Heathfield, Hillfarrance; Hull-Bishop's, Kingston, Lydeard St. Lawrence, Norton-Fitzwarren, Nynehead, Cake, Orchard-Portman, Otterford, Pitminster, Rimpton, Ruishton, Staplegrove, Stoke St. Mary, Tolland, Trull, Wilton, and Withiel-Florey, comprising an area of about 41,000 acres.

"TINTINHULL, a hundred, county Somerset, contains the parishes of Ilchester, Kingston, Montacute, Northover, Stoke-under-Hamdon, Thorne-Coffin, and Tintinhull, comprising 7,450 acres."

"TONE, a river of county Somerset, rises near Brompton Ralph, and joins the Parret at Borough Bridge."

"WELLOW, a hundred in county Somerset, contains the parishes of Camerton, Charterhouse-Hinton, Comb-Hay, Corston, Dunkerton, English Combe, Farleigh-Hungerford, Forscote, Newton St. Loe, Norton St. Philip, Tellisford, Twerton, and Wellow; comprising 21,900 acres."

"WELLS-FORUM, a hundred, county Somerset, contains the city of Wells, and the parishes of Binegar, Cranmore West, Dinder, Evercreech, Litton, Priddy, Westbury, and Wookey; comprising 30,000 acres."

"WHITLEY, a hundred in county Somerset, contains the parishes of Ashcott, Blackford, Butleigh, Compton-Dunton, Cossington, Greinton, High Ham, Holford, Holton, Middlezoy, West Monckton, Moorlinch, Othery, Milton-Podimore, Shapwick, Street, Walton, Weston Zoyland, Wheathill, and Woolavington, besides King's Sedgmoor, comprising together 49,640 acres."

"WHITSTONE, a hundred, county Somerset, contains the parishes of Batcombe, Croscombe, Ditcheat, Doulting, Downhead, Hornblotton, Lamyatt, East Pennard, Pilton, Pylle, Shepton-Mallet, and Stoke-Lane; comprising 33,150 acres."

"WILLITON AND FREEMANNERS, a hundred in the N.W. division of county Somerset, contains the small market town of Watchet, and the parishes of Bicknoller, Brompton Ralph, Brompton Regis, Brushford, Chipstable, Clatworthy, Old Cleeve, Crowcombe, St. Decuman, where is the workhouse, Dodington, Dulverton, Elworthy, Exmoor Forest, Exton, Halse, Hawkridge, Huish Champflower, Kilton, Kilve, Lilstock, Monksilver, Nettlecombe, East and West Quantoxhead, Raddington, Sampford Brett, Skilgate, Stogumber, Nether Stowey, Upton, Winsford, and Withypoole; comprising 114,870 acres."

"WINTERSTOKE, a hundred in the northern division of county Somerset, contains the parishes of Axbridge, Badgworth, Banwell, Blagdon, Bledon, Charterhouse-on-Mendip, Cheddar, Christon, Churchill, Compton Bishop, Congresbury, East Harptree, Hutton, Kenn, Kewstoke, Locking, Loxton, Puxton, Stoke Rodney, Rowberrow, Shipham, Uphill, Weston-super-Mare, Week St. Lawrence, Winscombe, Worle, and Yatton, comprising 62,030 acres."

When, after a long and obstinate conflict the Saxons finally conquered the

Waelas

and it is more than probable that the forts and strongholds of the Dumnonian chiefs and princes would, like the ports, harbours and forests of Dumnonia, pass direct into the keeping of the Wessex kings and so , in time , become ancient demesne of the Crown Vetus dominicum Coronae.

Such, indeed , seems to have been the fate of the domain of East and West Camel which , for centuries , figures as part and parcel of the “ Eorinsecus ” or outer Hundred of Somerton, the erstwhile capital of the “ Sea moor settlers.”

At Domesday, Queen’s Camel, (as East Camel appears to have been named), was in the hands of Queen Gytha, Harold’s wife,

like Puriton (Peritona), the port on the Parret, leading to the Poldens and Glaston.

This territorial nexus, linking the reputed stronghold of King Arthur with the Saxon Royal demesne and so with Domesday may have a real historical value.

If King Arthur was really slain in this part of Somerset, the story of his conveyance to Glaston across the flooded moors and meres, and perhaps by the Brue or Parret river would be obvious and simple.

The coast voyage from Camlan in Cornwall was both long and arduous for a wounded man.

In Somerset near Glaston the boat used might have been one of the boats called “ bargiae ” of the great Abbey itself— constructed for river navigation.

In Cornwall and in the neighbourhood of the famous Castle of Tintagel and its primitive harbour of Bude, (useful for Severn trows or light-draught ships of ancient pattern), the continuity of, first, British and then Saxon Royal or princely possession, may be even more striking.

The “ Hundred of Stratton ” in Triconshire, i.e. Cornwall, appears in King Alfred’s will as a Royal Saxon holding bequeathed by Ethel-wolf to his sons.

This would take us back to a.d. 800, nearly three hundred years before Domesday. That portion of Cornwall which included Tintagel the reputed birthplace of “ Rex Arturus ” descended to “ Rex Aelfredus ” and constitutes now what is probably the oldest “ membrum ” of the history in Somerset is unbroken and impressive.

Wookey HoleandCheddarand the rock shelters in ebbor and the other gorges and cliff-faces, are among the earliest homes of prehistoric man in these islands. Paleolithic flint implements have been found alongside bones of mammoth, sabre-toothed tiger and hyena.

these relics were left in places like the Bridged-Pot Shelter in the Ebbor gorge, countless ages ago when the carboniferous forests had not yet become the Mendip coalfields.

Then, about seven hundred b.c. the Bronze Age gave us a civilisation which flourished in the Lake Villages near present-day Glastonbury. These people knew how to work metals and produce weapons superior to those manufactured from raw flints.

They became a trading centre for northern Europe, safe in the fastness of their sea-lakes. As their houses on stilts tank into the fen, yet another layer became embalmed in the peat, preserved for excavation in our own day. I have held in my hand a bone wraving-comb, ornamented with a free curvilinear design, which had lain In (lie peat since its owner dropped it long before the coming of Christianity In these islands.

Other Bronze and Iron Age Celts have left their signatures on the landscape itself,

in the great tumuli of Priddy Nine Barrows and the ramparts of earthworks like Dolebury,

Cadbury (near Tickenham) and Cadbury,

the reputed Camelot (near Sparkford), Maesbury,Worleburyand Castle Neroche.

On remote Exmoor they left us Cow Castle, near Simonsbath, and Mounsey and Brewer’s Castles beside the Barle at dulverton. They left us “castles” and storage pits at Penselwood and

the Caractacus Stone above Winsford.

They left the well-known stone circle at Stanton Drew above the Chew Valley not many miles from Bristol and a remote and much smaller one on the heathery moor above withypool.

There is a chambered Long Barrow at Stoney Littleton, near Bath and Standing Stones at Orchardleigh near Frome.

These ancient cultures were abandoned or destroyed by pressure from other tribes, possibly the Belgae themselves fleeing before the power of Rome.

When Somerset itself became part of the Roman Empire, the lake villages were abandoned and forgotten until our own time.

The varied stones, which are the “bones” of a county, have given Somerset its contrasts in both scenery and architecture.

Exmoor and Brendon gives us hard Devonian sandstone and slate, and the heavy, solid, low buildings to withstand exposure to westerly winds and sometimes heavy rainfall.

Around Taunton and in the Quantock area, the soil is a rich Devonian red, and many of the cottages and churches (Wiveliscombe, Milverton, Bishop’s Lydeard, of a warm pink sandstone.

The Somerton area near the fossil-rich quarries of Keinton Mandeville abound in dignified blue-grey buildings with farms and barns on a generous scale.

The gentle Poldens which undulate out into Sedgemoor country south of Street, reveal cream and pink strata above Compton Dundon, where alabaster is quarried. Doulting stone, from the south-eastern edge of Mendip, was used in the building of Wells Cathedral, and has given us mellow towns like Bruton and pretty villages like Compton Pauncefote.

The carboniferous limestone of Mendip besides the caves and gorges, well known to the tourist, gives rise to the collieries of Pensford, Mid-somer Norton and Radstock, but the occasional pitheads and slag-heaps are well absorbed by this hilly, well-watered area.

Mendip

is also rich in lead, copper, manganese, mica, quartz and many other minerals.

The golden Ham stone of the Yeovil area

CHRISTON ,a parish inAxbridge district, Somerset ; 2½ miles SE of Weston-super-Mare Junction r. Station, and 4 NW of Axbridge. Post town , Banwell, under

Weston-super-Mare. Acres, 571. Rated property, £662. Pop., 81. Houses, 19. The property is divided among a few. The living is a rectory inthe diocese of Bath and Wells.Value, £99.* Patron,R. Wainwright, Esq.

The church is early English.

8o WESTERN MENDIPSWinscombe is one of many isolated manors belonging to the Abbey of Glastonbury, accessible by the road along the length of the Wedmore ridge. It is a very pleasant place, with its church set on rising ground and commanding a fine view. The tower, of the triple-windowed type, is certainly one of the best in this neighbourhood. The rood-loft stair is accommodated in an external turret. Further, the carved bench-ends are to be noted. Shipham, reached by field path, is a hill village lying eastward, and is an excellent centre for a pedestrian anxious to explore

Mendip. Ascend the 630 feet of Crook’s Peak, from

which there is nothing N., S., and W. to bar the view

for many miles.

BLEADON HILL 975 and D ., Bledone: either a

purple hill or Bledda’s hill.— The villages of Bleadon

areLoxtonandChristonon the E. side, Hutton N.W ., and Bleadon S.W. They are all on Rhxtic beds of Keuper marl, like Winscombe and Shipham, not on

carboniferous limestone like the generality of the Mendip country. Loxton’s amenity is that it looks up at Crook’s Peak. The church, slightly away from

the road E., has a short tower on the S. side, a

curious squint in the porch, a fine pulpit (Pcrp.) of

carved stone,' and a good screen. Christon’s small

church, with central tower, though aisleless and trail

septless, deserves a visit for its Norman work. Under

the tower note two Norman lurches with double

chevrons and other mouldings, and the lozenge

moulding of the S. door arch. Bleadon is below the

penultimate hill camp, now not easy to trace. Its

church, not so interesting as that of Loxton, has a

asking to be added to our national treasures.

UPHILL Hubba s Creek: cf. Pylle, Pille= creek . The K noll close by explains the popular

corruption).—The only thing “uphill” is the remains

of the originally Norman church on the end of the

knoll. There is a ferry 6d. across the Axe to Brean Down. The chief interest of Uphill is purely antiquarian. It is fairly certain that under the name of

Axiumthis was the harbour from which much of the produce of the Roman lead mines on Mendip was exported. The land route was by the road which has

been traced for fifty-five miles from Uphill to Old Sarum, near Salisbury. It is a p retty piece o f road

between Bleadon Hill, practically Mendip end, and the sea flats. Just beyond Bleadon village a bridge

crosses the Axe, and a minute later on the left Crook’s Peak opens up, as it looks across to the group of pines that marks out Bleadon Down.

BANWELL ).—About five miles E. of Weston is Banwell; but the most effective way to see this picturesque village leaning up against Ms island hillock is to approach it from the N. across

the flats, when there comes into view a noble lofty church and an old turreted building to the E. of it.

Banwellis quite rich in interest: it has, besides the church and old manor-house, a prehistoric camp, atrackway, called a Roman road, a mysterious turf boss , and some caves. It is, moreover, the site of a monastery given byAlfred to Asser, like Congrcsbury. Thechurch is fine. Its tower, with

three miles S. of Congresbury is Churchill, under the prehistoric camp of Dolebury.

There is another Camp atDinghurst, West of the Bristol road, and two miles west of that yet another at Banwell. Nearly every convenient promontory hill hereabouts seems to have been fortified before the Romans came. The village is very pleasing. Inthe church, the north aisle has a good roof and there are carved bench-ends and a squint, and on the floor of the South aisle is a brass 1572 to Ralph Jenyns and his wife.

It is said that these were the ancestors of the Sarah Jennings who became Duchess of Marlborough, and that the Duke was descended from the Churchills of the old mansion of Churchill.

But I cannot vouch for this story.Dolebury Campis to the E. of the curve in the Bristol road before it forks to Shipham and Sidcot. It is a very remarkable work on the summit of the hill, some 20 acres in extent, the defences consisting on the N. side of two fosses and two valla, “a double line of gigantic stone embankment”, says Mr Hadrian Allcroft, “some 550 yards in length, representing a truly enormous amount of labour. On the southern side the hill is so steep that one vallum only was deemed sufficient protection”.

At the Eastern end, the weakest part, the two valla reappear and reach “an amazing size”. The entrances are W. and N.E. Inside, the camp area is divided by four parallel banks, but these are quite possibly comparatively recent work.

Generations of miners have dug here for minerals. Leland quotes an old rhyme:

“If Doleberie dygged were,

Of golde shuld be theshare”.

8o WESTERN MENDIPSWinscombe is one of many isolated manors belonging to the Abbey of Glastonbury, accessible by the road along the length of the Wedmore ridge. It is a very pleasant place, with its church set on rising ground and commanding a fine view. The tower, of the triple-windowed type, is certainly one of the best in this neighbourhood. The rood-loft stair is accommodated in an external turret. Further, the carved bench-ends are to be noted. Shipham, reached by field path, is a hill village lying eastward, and is an excellent centre for a pedestrian anxious to explore

Mendip. Ascend the 630 feet of Crook’s Peak, from

which there is nothing N., S., and W. to bar the view

for many miles.

BLEADON HILL 975 and D ., Bledone: either a

purple hill or Bledda’s hill.— The villages of Bleadon

areLoxtonandChristonon the E. side, Hutton N.W ., and Bleadon S.W. They are all on Rhxtic beds of Keuper marl, like Winscombe and Shipham, not on

carboniferous limestone like the generality of the Mendip country. Loxton’s amenity is that it looks up at Crook’s Peak. The church, slightly away from

the road E., has a short tower on the S. side, a

curious squint in the porch, a fine pulpit (Pcrp.) of

carved stone,' and a good screen. Christon’s small

church, with central tower, though aisleless and trail

septless, deserves a visit for its Norman work. Under

the tower note two Norman lurches with double

chevrons and other mouldings, and the lozenge

moulding of the S. door arch. Bleadon is below the

penultimate hill camp, now not easy to trace. Its

church, not so interesting as that of Loxton, has a

Definition of medieval

The adjective medieval literally means “of the Middle Ages,” i.e., the period between antiquity (the Roman world) and the early modern era 

Common chronological range

Historians most often treat the Middle Ages as roughly the 5th century to the 15th century: from the collapse of the Western Roman Empire (commonly dated 476) up to the Renaissance and early modern transitions around 1400–1500 

Standard subperiods and their usual dates

• Early Middle Ages: about 500–1000.
• High Middle Ages: about 1000–1300.
• Late Middle Ages: about 1300–1500.
  These are conventional labels; exact boundaries vary by region and by the historian’s focus 

What authors usually mean when they write “medieval”

• Broad cultural sense: the social, political, religious, and material world shaped by feudal institutions, Christendom, and post‑Roman societies in Europe between Late Antiquity and the Renaissance 
• In specialised works an author may narrow the term (for example, “medieval urban law” might mean 1100–1400), so check the author’s period definition in introductions or captions 

Origin and first use of the word

The English term derives from Latin medium aevum “middle age.” The modern English adjective (often spelled mediaeval earlier) was coined in the 19th century from that Latin phrase; recorded modern forms date from the early 1800s (commonly cited 1825 for the form medieval/mediaeval) 

Quick guidance for reading historical scripts

When you encounter “medieval” in a text, assume 5th–15th centuries unless the author states otherwise; for precise work always look for the author’s explicit chronological scope because usages and boundary years differ by topic and region 

Bronze Age time boundaries overview

The Bronze Age is a cultural-technical phase defined by the pervasive use of bronze (an alloy of copper with tin or arsenic), alongside associated changes in technology, trade, burial practice, and social organisation. Its absolute dates vary widely by region because metallurgy and associated cultural changes spread at different times. Below are commonly used regional ranges and practical guidance for tagging or labelling gazetteer entries.

Common regional date ranges

• Near East and Anatolia
  Early Bronze Age: c. 3300–2100 BCE; Middle Bronze Age: c. 2100–1600 BCE; Late Bronze Age: c. 1600–1200 BCE.
• Aegean (Greece and Cyclades)
  Early Bronze Age: c. 3000–2000 BCE; Middle Bronze Age: c. 2000–1600 BCE; Late Bronze Age: c. 1600–1100 BCE.
• Central and Western Europe
  Broad Bronze Age: c. 2300–800 BCE; subdivided (Early/Middle/Late) roughly as Early c. 2300–1500 BCE, Middle c. 1500–1200 BCE, Late c. 1200–800 BCE.
• British Isles (including Devon and Cornwall)
  Broad Bronze Age: c. 2500–800 BCE; Early Bronze Age often starts c. 2500–2000 BCE (after Late Neolithic/Beaker horizons), Late Bronze Age ends c. 800 BCE.
• South Asia (Indian subcontinent)
  Indus-related Bronze Age/Harappan: c. 3300–1300 BCE (mature Harappan c. 2600–1900 BCE); local Bronze-using traditions continue and overlap with early Iron use.
• East Asia
  Bronze Age in China: roughly c. 2000–771 BCE (Xia-Shang-Zhou sequences; Shang c. 1600–1046 BCE is strongly bronze-rich).
• The Americas and parts of Sub-Saharan Africa
  No true widespread Bronze Age phase comparable to Old World sequences; metallurgy often appears much later and in different forms.

Practical guidance for mapping and gazetteer work

• Use region-specific ranges rather than a single global boundary.
• For ambiguous or single-site reports, prefer relative labels: Early Bronze Age, Middle Bronze Age, Late Bronze Age, or Bronze Age (broad)with a numeric range (e.g., Bronze Age c. 2500–800 BCE).
• Where chronology is uncertain, record both: cultural label(Bronze Age) and confidence/precision(e.g., high if radiocarbon dated; low if typological only).
• Include key local markers in metadata: metallurgy present; Beaker/urnfield/bronze-ritual features; radiocarbon dates range; typology links.
• Allow fields for overlapping phases (e.g., “Late Neolithic / Early Bronze Age transitional”) and for caveats like reuse or later disturbance.

Why ranges differ and how to communicate that

• Start and end dates depend on: first local alloy production; availability of tin or copper sources and trade; cultural adoption of bronze technologies; and the arrival of ironworking.
• Use wording that communicates variability: “Bronze Age (regional: c. 2500–800 BCE)”or “Bronze Age — British Isles convention: c. 2500–800 BCE”.
• When precision matters, attach dating evidence: radiocarbon ranges, stratigraphic context, or diagnostic artefact types.

Short recommended labels for database fields

• Period label: Bronze Age
• Region qualifier: e.g., British Isles
• Numeric range: e.g., c. 2500–800 BCE
• Subdivision: Early / Middle / Late (if known)
• Dating confidence: High / Medium / Low
• Dating evidence: Radiocarbon; typology; stratigraphy; historical reference

The suffix ‘ton’ constitutes a sort of test word,” says Mr. Isaac Taylor, “ by which we are able to discriminate the Anglo-Saxon settlements.”1 “A tun or ‘ton ’ was a place
surrounded by a hedge, or rudely fortified by a palisade”

The passage you quoted is part of the author’s argument that Plympton’s name is unmistakably Anglo‑Saxon, and that the key to recognising this lies in the suffix ‑ton. The PDF you have open confirms this discussion in its treatment of early Plympton history .

🏰 What ‑tonActually Signifies

The core point is that ‑ton(Old English tūn) originally meant:

• An enclosed place— literally a fenced or hedged area

• A defended homestead or settlement— often with a palisade

• A farmstead that could grow into a village or manor

So when you see a place‑name ending in ‑ton, you are almost always looking at:

• A Saxon foundation, or

• A Saxon renamingof an older site they took over.

This is why Isaac Taylor calls it a “test word”: it reliably marks Anglo‑Saxon occupation or administrative control.